Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: An Introduction to Greek Paleography
BRUCE M. METZGER
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
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MANUSCRIPTS OF THE
GREEK BIBLE An Introduction to Greek Palaeography BY
BRUCE M. METZGER George L. Collord Professor of New Testament Language and Literature Princeton Theological Seminary
NEW YORK
OXFORD
OXFORD U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS
Copyright © 1981 by Oxford University Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.
Corrected edition, 1991. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Metzger, Bruce Manning. Manuscripts of the Greek Bible. Bibliography: pp. 141-143. Includes indexes, i. Bible—Manuscripts, Greek. 2. Palaeography, Greek. 3. Greek language, Biblical. 4. Bible—Manuscripts, Greek—Facsimiles. I. Title. 8839^47 220.4*8 80-26205 ISBN-13 978-0-19-502924-6 ISBN o-19-502924-0
98
Printed in the United States of America
Preface His book is intended primarily for students of the Greek Bible. Its scope
T includes manuscripts not only of the Greek New Testament but also of the Greek Old Testament. The latter, though often neglected today, was the Scriptures of the early Christians, and was quoted habitually by Paul and other apostolic writers. Besides students of the Bible, however, anyone concerned with the Greek classics and their transmission down the centuries will also find something of interest in the following pages. In fact, the importance and utility of palaeography can be appreciated by all who read any literary work from antiquity. Printed books as we know them today have existed for a little over five hundred years, but the writing and publishing of literary works in the Western world began at least twentyfive hundred years ago. The study of palaeography enables us to span the centuries prior to Gutenberg, and makes the literary treasures of antiquity available to the present generation. Palaeography is of concern also to the historian of art. In every age of the world's history, and to a great extent in some ages, there have been those who took pride in their handwriting and cultivated it to a high degree of excellence. Care given to calligraphy and to the illumination of manuscripts has resulted in the production of deluxe editions fit for the libraries of kings and nobles. Literary works were illustrated with exquisite miniatures, painted in the margins or on separate folios with lovely colors that even after centuries still dazzle the eye. These frequently depict scenes of the Bible, recording both the interest of the passage and the piety of the artist. Likewise, in terms of practical usefulness for textual criticism, the present volume aims to acquaint the beginner in palaeography with the habits of scribes and the difficulties they faced in copying manuscripts. Such information will enable one to understand and appreciate the reasons for the emergence of variant readings in manuscripts of the Greek Bible. To this end the Plates in the second part of the book present and illustrate forms of Greek script from the second century B.C. to the fifteenth century A.D. Each of the forty-five manuscripts represented is interesting or important from the view point of palaeography and/or textual criticism of the Greek Bible. Here one will find, to take three or four examples, reproductions of a fragment of Deuteronomy in Greek that contains the sacred name of God (the Tetragrammaton) written in Hebrew letters (Plate 3), a leaf from a copy of the Gospel of Matthew in which
PREFACE
Pilate asks whether he should release Jesus Barabbas or Jesus who is called the Christ (Plate 25), a page of Luke's Gospel in which the second petition of the Lord's Prayer is replaced with 'Thy holy Spirit come upon us and cleanse us' (Plate 37), and the earliest manuscript that contains the extra verse in chapter 8 of the Book of Acts (Plate 22). There is also the occasional wry comment or indignant expostulation written in the margin of a manuscript (Plates 28 and 13). Nor have representations been forgotten that provide examples of lectionaries, musical neumes, bilingual texts, and illustrations of Scriptural scenes (for example, Potiphar's wife attempting to seduce Joseph, Plate 20, or the literalistic interpretation of metaphorical language in the Psalms, Plate 27). Gratitude is expressed to all who have assisted in the production of this volume. It was Henry St. J. Hart, Dean and Tutor at Queens' College, Cambridge, who, more than a decade ago, wrote me suggesting that I should consider putting together an album of life-size facsimiles of New Testament Greek manuscripts. I am particularly indebted to Professor Eric G. Turner of the University of London for reading part one of the book and for making a variety of helpful comments and corrections. With characteristic generosity he also gave me the benefit of his wide palaeographical expertise when more than once I discussed with him certain specimens of Greek hands depicted in part two. Professor Demetrios J. Constantelos of Stockton State College kindly answered my questions concerning Byzantine liturgical manuscripts. Stephen S. Wilburn of the New York office of the Oxford University Press has maintained from the beginning an unfailing interest in the writing and publication of the volume. The plates have been obtained from a variety of sources. By far the largest number are reproduced from the microfilms assembled over the years by the International Greek New Testament Project and now housed in the archives of the Ancient Biblical Manuscript Center at Claremont, California. Besides the convenience of consultation, the microfilms also offered the opportunity to choose a particular page that provides features of palaeographic and/or textual interest. Other reproductions, particularly of manuscripts of the Greek Old Testament, were made from collections of specimen folios of such manuscripts and, occasionally, from plates in facsimile editions of individual manuscripts. I am grateful to John Joseph Lolla, Jr., for his expertise in handling all such photographic details, and to Michael W. Holmes for assistance in correcting proofs and for compiling the palaeographical index. Figure 2 in the text is reproduced with permission from David Diringer's The Alphabet (Hutchinson, London), and Figures i and 3 to 8 from B. A. van Groningen's Short Manual of Greek Palaeography (A. W. Sijthoff, Leiden). Finally, thanks are due to the several libraries that provided the remaining photographs and that granted permission to reproduce them in this volume. BRUCE M. METZGER
Contents
P A R T ONE: G R E E K P A L A E O G R A P H Y i. Definition and Summary of Research
page 3
§1. D E F I N I T I O N
3
§2. THE B E G I N N I N G S
OF P A L A E O G R A P H Y
§3. M O D E R N TOOLS FOR P A L A E O G R A P H I C R E S E A R C H
II. The Greek Alphabet §4. THE
GREEK ALPHABET
§5. G R E E K N U M E R A L S GREEK
§7. THE SOUNDS OF G R E E K
ALPHABET
II
O R A L AND W R I T T E N
12
14
§9. THE M A T E R I A L S OF A N C I E N T B O O K S §1O. THE F O R M A T OF A N C I E N T
BOOKS
§ 1 1 . PEN, I N K , A N D OTHER W R I T I N G
MATERIALS
PALIMPSESTS
14 15 17 l8
v. The Transcribing of Greek Manuscripts §13. S C R I B E S A N D T H E I R §14. S T Y L E S
10
11 LETTERS
IV. The Making of Ancient Books
§12.
6 7
OF THE
III. The Pronunciation of Greek §8. A C C E N T ,
4
6
O R I G I N S OF THE
§6. OFFSHOOTS
3
WORK
OF G R E E K H A N D W R I T I N G
20 2O 22
§15. U N C I A L H A N D W R I T I N G
24
§l6.
MINUSCULE HANDWRITING
25
§17.
A B B R E V I A T I O N S AND SYMBOLS
29
§18. Scriptio continua
31
§19. P U N C T U A T I O N
31
VI. Special Features of Biblical Manuscripts
33
§2O. THE T E T R A G R A M M A T O N
33
§21. Nomina Sacra
36
§22. H E X A P L A R I C
SIGNS
§23. S T I C H O M E T R Y
AND C O L O M E T R Y
§24. S U P E R S C R I P T I O N S §25. C H A P T E R
AND S U B S C R I P T I O N S
D I V I S I O N S AND H E A D I N G S
§26. THE E U S E B I A N
CANON TABLES
§27. THE E U T H A L I A N
APPARATUS
§28. H Y P O T H E S E S §29.
LECTIONARY
§3O.
NEUMES
38 40 40 42 43 43
EQUIPMENT
44 44
§31. M I N I A T U R E S §32. GLOSSES,
38
LEXICA,
44 O N O M A S T I C A , AND C O M M E N T A R I E S
46
APPENDICES
I. How to Estimate the Date of a Greek Manuscript II. How to Collate a Greek Manuscript III. Statistics Relating to the Manuscripts of the Greek New Testament
49 52 54
CONTENTS P A R T TWO: P L A T E S A N D D E S C R I P T I O N S (For a List of the Plates, see below)
page 5 7 141
BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEXES
I. Scripture Passages Shown in the Plates II. Manuscripts Arranged According to their Sigla III. Manuscripts Arranged According to their Present Location IV. Palaeographical Index
145 145 146 147
List of Figures FIG. I. Semitic and Greek alphabets FIG. 2. Development of the Greek alphabet FIG. 3. Usual combinations of minuscule letters FIG. 4. Forms of letters in minuscule codices FIG. 5. Combinations of letters in later minuscule codices FIG. 6. Combinations of uncial letters FIG. 7. Combination and superposition of letters FIG. 8. Various abbreviations FIG. 9. The Tetragrammaton in archaic Hebrew letters
page 8 23 27 27 27 30 30 30 34
List of Plates 1. Rahlfs 957. Manchester, John Rylands Library, P. Ryl. 458. 2. Rahfls 803. Jerusalem, Palestine Archeological Museum, 7Q1 LXX Ex. 3. Rahlfs 848. Cairo, University Library, P. Fouad Inv. 266. 4. Gregory-Aland p82. Manchester, John Rylands Library, P. Ryl. 457. 5. Rahlfs 814. New Haven, Yale University, Bei 6. Gregory-Aland p46. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, Inv. 6238. 7. Gregory-Aland p66. Cologny-Geneva, Bibliotheca Bodmeriana, Pap. 2. 8. Gregory-Aland 0212. New Haven, Yale University, Beinecke Library, Dura Parch. 24. 9. Gregory-Aland p75. Cologny-Geneva, Bibliotheca Bodmeriana, Pap. XIV. 10. Rahfls 967. Princeton, University Library, Scheide Pap. 11. Rahlfs 962. Dublin, Chester Beatty Library, Pap. V. 12. Gregory-Aland 0169. Princeton, Theological Seminary Library, Pap. 5. 13. Gregory-Aland B (Codex Vaticanus). Rome, Biblioteca Vaticana, Gr. 1209. 14. Gregory-Aland X (Codex Sinaiticus). London, British Library, Add. 43725. 15. Rahlfs G (Codex Colberto-Sarravianus). Leiden, University Library, Voss. Gr. Q8. 16. Gregory-Aland W (Codex Washingtonianus). Washington, Freer Gallery of Art, cod. 06.274. 17. Rahlfs W. Washington, Freer Gallery of Art, cod. Wash. I. 18. Gregory-Aland A (Codex Alexandrinus). London, British Library, Royal, I.D.v-viii. 19. Gregory-Aland D (Codex Bezae). Cambridge, University Library, Nn.2.41. 20. Rahlfs L (Vienna Genesis). Vienna, Nationalbibliothek, Theol. Gr. 31. 21. Rahlfs Q (Codex Marchalianus). Rome, Biblioteca Vaticana, Gr. 2125. 22. Gregory-Aland E (Codex Laudianus). Oxford, Bodleian Library, Laud. 35. 23. Gregory-Aland 047. Princeton, University Library, Garrett ms. i. 24. Gregory-Aland ¥. Mount Athos, Laura ms. 172 (B'52). 25. Gregory-Aland 0 (Koridethi Codex). Tiflis, Inst. Rukop. Gr. 28. 26. Gregory-Aland 461 (Uspensky Gospels). Leningrad, State Public Library, Gr. 219. 27. Rahlfs 1101 (Khludov Psalter). Moscow, Historical Museum, cod. 129. 28. Gregory-Aland G (Codex Boernerianus). Dresden, Sächsische Landesbibliothek, A 29. Gregory-Aland 892. Lodnon, British Library, Add. 33277. 30. Rahlfs 1098. Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosiana, O 39 Sup. 31. Gregory-Aland S. Rome, Biblioteca Vaticana, Gr. 354. 32. Gregory-Aland 1739. Mount Athos, Laura ms. 184 (B'64).
page 61 61 61 63 63
65 67 67 69 71
73 73 75 79 81 83 85 87 90, 91 93 95 97 99 99 100 103 103 105
107 109 110 113
CONTENTS 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45.
Gregory-Aland 7562. Rome, Biblioteca Vaticana, Gr. 2138. Prophetologion. Jerusalem, Greek Patriarchal Library, Saba 247. Gregory-Aland 623. Rome, Biblioteca Vaticana, Gr. 1650. Gregory-Aland 124. Vienna, Nationalbibliothek, Theol. Gr. 188. Gregory-Aland 700. London, British Library, Egerton 2610. Gregory-Aland ^303. Princeton, Theological Seminary Library, 11.21.1900. Gregory-Aland ISog. Sinai, Monastery of St. Catherine, Gr. 286. Gregory-Aland 165. Rome, Biblioteca Vaticana, Barb. Gr. 541. Gregory-Aland 1922. Florence, Biblioteca Laurenziana, ms. Plut. X. 19. Gregory-Aland 2060. Rome, Biblioteca Vaticana, Gr. 542. Gregory-Aland 223. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, ms. 35. Gregory-Aland 1022. Baltimore, Walters Art Gallery, ms. 533. Gregory-Aland 69. Leicester, Town Museum, Muniment Room, Cod. ^5H
page 115 117 119 121 123 125 127 129 131 133 135 137 139
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PART ONE
Greek Palaeography
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I Definition and Summary of Research
§1. D E F I N I T I O N
P
ALAEOGRAPHY is the science that studies ancient writing, preserved on papyrus, parchment, or paper, occasionally on potsherds, wood, or waxed tablets. Epigraphy deals with ancient inscriptions on durable objects, such as stone, bone, or metal, while numismatics is confined to coins and medals. The distinctions are less superficial than it may seem, for the forms of letters were determined in part by the nature and the size of the material that received them. Greek palaeography has three aims: first, developing the practical ability of reading and dating the manuscripts; second, tracing the history of Greek handwriting, including not only the form and style of letters, but also such matters as punctuation, abbreviations, and the like; and third, analyzing the layout of the written page and the make-up of ancient book forms (codicology). §2. THE B E G I N N I N G S OF P A L A E O G R A P H Y
PRIOR to the seventeenth century palaeography as a systematic study had not yet come into existence.1 Confronted with variant readings in ancient manuscripts scholars were content to make ad hoc judgments concerning the relative age of documents. The development of palaeography as a discrete discipline had its origin in reaction to charges made in 1675 by the Bollandist scholar Daniel Papebroch denying the authenticity of certain documents constituting the credentials of several Benedictine monasteries. The learned Benedictine monks at St. Maur took up the challenge by founding the science of palaeography. The first treatise to deal with the classification of Latin manuscripts according to their age in the light of handwriting and other internal evidence was the monumental work of the Maurist Jean Mabillon (1632-1707), entitled De Re Diplomatica (Paris, 1681; 2 vols., Naples, 1789). The first scholar who studied Greek palaeography in a systematic way was another Benedictine, Bernard de Montfaucon (1655-1741). Besides producing in fifteen folio volumes a vast work on Greek and Roman antiquities, Montfaucon laid the foundation for the study of Greek manuscripts in his Palaeographia Graeca, sive de ortu et progressu liter arum Graecarum . . . (Paris, 1708). In this splendid work,
1 Cf. P. Lehmann, 'Einteilung und Datierung nach Jahrhunderten,' in Erforschung des Mittelalters, i (Stuttgart, 1941; reprinted 1959), pp. 114-29; S. Rizzo, // lessicofilologico degli umanisti (Rome, 1973), pp. 114-68;
Patricia Easterling, 'Before Palaeography: Notes on Early Descriptions and Datings of Greek Manuscripts,' Studio Codicologica, ed. by Kurt Treu (Texte und Untersuchungen, cxxiv; Berlin, i<)Tj), pp. 178-87.
3
4
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
still useful on account of the amount of material brought together, 'not only was a new discipline created, but, as it seems, was also perfected.>a During the rest of the eighteenth century and the first part of the nineteenth century no significant advance was made in Greek palaeography.3 In 1811 Frid. Jas. Bast issued at Leipzig his 'Commentario palaeographica,' bound as an Appendix at the close of Gottfried H. Schaefer's edition of the works of Gregorius Corinthius.4 Here Bast discusses the forms of individual Greek letters, various compendia, letters designating numerals, and similar matters. Among nineteenth-century scholars who gave attention to manuscript studies, the most productive by far was Constantine von Tischendorf (1815-1874). Besides undertaking repeated journeys to the Near East in search of Greek manuscripts, Tischendorf worked untiringly in editing the Septuagint, the New Testament (in eight editions), and the text of many apocryphal books. His knowledge of Greek uncial writing was unparalleled, being based upon an examination of some three hundred specimens. §3. M O D E R N TOOLS FOR P A L A E O G R A P H I C R E S E A R C H
BEGINNING about the middle of the nineteenth century international scholarship started to give serious attention to the discipline of palaeography and the publication of manuscripts in facsimile reproduction. During the twentieth century, with the development of improved techniques of photography, microfilms of manuscripts have made it virtually unnecessary to travel to far-away libraries in order to consult the documents themselves. Indexes, catalogues, and check-lists are now available to assist the study of all aspects of ancient manuscripts, the most comprehensive being the two volumes entitled The Palaeography Collection in the University of London Library (Boston, 1968). Volume i is an Author Catalogue, containing an estimated 10,800 cards; volume 2 is a Subject Catalogue, with an estimated 13,100 cards. The manuscript treasures of the libraries in the Monastery of St. Catherine on Mt. Sinai (founded A.D. 527),* in the Greek and Armenian Patriarchates in Jerusalem,6 and in the monasteries on Mount Athos7 are now available on 35 mm. negative film at the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., from which copies 1 So Viktor Gardthausen evaluates the work, in his Griechische Palaeographie; i, Das Buchwesen im Altertum undim byzantiniichen Mittelalter, 2nd ed. (Leipzig, 1911), p. 7. * A convenient summary of Montfaucon's magnum opus was issued under the title Epitome Graecae palaeographiae, auctore D. Gregorio Placentinio [Piacentini] (Rome, 1735; reprinted, Milan, 1970). 4 Being pp. 701-861 of Schaefer's volume. s Checklist of Manuscripts in St. Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai. Microfilmed for the Library of Congress, 1950. Prepared under the direction of Kenneth W. Clark (Washington, 1952). See also K. W. Clark, 'The Microfilming Projects at Mount Sinai and Jerusalem,'
The Library of Congress Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions, viii, no. 3 (May 1951), pp. 6-12. 6 Checklist of Manuscripts in the Libraries of the Greek and Armenian Patriarchates in Jerusalem. Microfilmed for the Library of Congress, 1949-50. Prepared under the direction of Kenneth W. Clark (Washington, 1953). 7 A Descriptive Checklist of Selected Manuscripts in the Monasteries of Mount Athos. Microfilmed for the Library of Congress and the International Greek New Testament Project, 1952-53. . . . Compiled under the general direction of Ernest W. Saunders (Washington, 1957). Cf. also Ernest W. Saunders, 'Operation Microfilm at Mt. Athos,' Biblical Archaeologist, xviii (1955), pp. 22-41.
DEFINITION AND SUMMARY OF RESEARCH
5
may be obtained. Besides consulting the checklists of each of these collections, one should not overlook other, smaller collections which are listed in John L. Sharpe's 'Checklist of Collections of Biblical and Related Manuscripts on Microfilm in the United States and Canada.'8 What has been described as the most important research tool to be developed in the past fifty years for Greek studies based on manuscripts is the late Marcel Richard's Repertoire des bibliotheques et des catalogues de manuscrits grecs, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1958), with Supplement I (1958-1963) (Paris, 1964). This provides the titles of some 900 catalogues describing 55,000 Greek manuscripts belonging to 820 libraries or owners, in 415 locations where the manuscripts are at present deposited.9 Historical and critical surveys of published research on manuscripts are helpful in obtaining a general overview of the field. Notable among several such bibliographical aids are the surveys in Bursians Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, the most recent being Wilhelm Weinberger's 'Bericht iiber Palaographie und Handschriftenkunde' in vol. 236 (1932), pp. 85-113. Still more useful for the study of Greek palaeography are the summaries and evaluations prepared by Gerard Garitte, 'Manuscrits grecs, 1940-1950,' in Scriptorium, vi (1952), pp. 114-46, and 'Manuscrits grecs, 1950-1955,' ibid., xii (1958), pp. 118-48; and by Jean Irigoin, 'Les manuscrits grecs, 1931-1960,' in Lustrum, vii (1962 [1963]), pp. 1-93, 332-5. Garitte lists and comments on 552 items published during the ten-year period and 680 items for the five-year period; Irigoin's comments are somewhat fuller on nearly 350 items published during the thirty-year period. So far as the Greek manuscripts in the Vatican Library are concerned, a bibliographical tool of considerable usefulness is the wide-ranging volume compiled by Paul Canart and Vittorio Peri entitled, Sussidi bibliografici per i manoscritti greci della Biblioteca Vaticana (Studi e testi, 261; Vatican City, 1970), xv-fyog pp. This work provides an index to studies of, monographs on, and references to individual Greek manuscripts in the Vatican collections. For details concerning the papyri of the Greek Bible, including extensive bibliographies, one may consult with profit Kurt Aland's Repertorium der griechischen christlichen Papyri', i, Biblische Papyri (Berlin and New York, 1976). Broader in scope, but less detailed for each item, is Joseph van Racist's Catalogue des Papyrus litteraires juifs et chretiens (Paris, 1976), which, besides Biblical papyri, includes patristic texts, liturgical and private prayers, magical texts, and Latin texts.10
8 Scriptorium, xxv (1971), pp. 97-109. Sharpe's list may now be supplemented with Paul Canart, 'Les inventaires specialises de manuscrits grecs,' Scriptorium, xxiv (1970), pp. 11 a-16. 9 For plans to put the information contained in Richard's Repertoire into a computer Concerning Cadmus and the origins of the Greek alphabet, see Rudolf Pfeiffer, History of Classical Scholarship, from the Beginning to the End of the Hellenistic Age (Oxford, 1968), pp. 19-24, and Ruth Blanche Edwards, 'Greek Legends and the Mycenaean Age, with Special Reference to Oriental Elements in the Legend of Kadmos,' unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cambridge, 1968, esp. pp. 218-24. A revised version of Dr. Edwards's research is to be published through A. M. Hakkert under the tide, Kadmos the
6
THE GREEK ALPHABET 14
bet. The names
7
that are nearly or entirely identical include
(later irt) Semites wrote (and still write) from right to left. This was also the direction in which at an early stage Greeks used to write—as stated by Pausanius (v.25.g, I and as corroborated in several very ancient Greek inscriptions. Subsequently there followed a transition period, that of writing in the (3ovstyle ('turning as the ox [ploughs]'), in which the first line is right to left, the second left to right, and so on, alternating.15 By the beginning of the fifth century B.C. the left to right style had become customary, and it is rare to find a inscription after 500 B.C. A change in the direction of writing at the same time altered the form of the letters: written from left to right they reproduce the original form as seen in a mirror. Even a cursory comparison of the forms of the several alphabets in Fig. i (see p. 8) shows that in many cases the shapes and values of the letters are remarkably similar. In ancient times the Greek alphabet had three other letters, which eventually fell out of common use. (i) The letter f, called waw or digamma (i.e. 'double gamma,' from its shape), stood after e and corresponded to the Hebrew letter 1 (w). (2) The letter 9 or ^, koppa, stood after ir and corresponded to the Hebrew letter p (emphatic q). In the course of time, because spoken Greek did not require such sounds, waw and koppa were discarded as letters, the former by the eighth century B.C., and the latter by the sixth century B.C. Both continued to be employed, however, along with (3) the letter ^ sampi, as numerals, waw then often having the alternative form ST. §5. GREEK NUMERALS
THE letters of the Greek alphabet, supplemented with the three supernumerary letters, were used since at least the third century B.C. as numerals.16 The first nine Rev. 1:8, n; 21:6; and 22:13 'E*y<& ^M' TO &a KO.I r6 w is read by all of the approximately 250 manuscripts of that book except two of very recent date (GregoryAland 1775, A.D. 1847, and 2077, A.D. 1685), which read cb/u&ya. In the late fourth-century poem entitled 'De litteris monosyllabis Graecis ac Latinis' (no. xiii in Ausonius's Technopaegnion), the meter indicates that e, v, and w are each pronounced as monosyllables; cf. A. E. Gordon, The Letter Names of the Latin Alphabet (Berkeley, 1973), pp. 22 f., and (for omega) Eberhard Nestle in Philologus, Ixx (1911), pp. 155 f. 14 The names of Semitic letters are formed in accord with the acrophonic principle: every sound was represented by the picture-symbol of a particular word which had that sound as an initial characteristic (whether syllable or letter). Thus, the word aleph means an ox, and the original drawing of an ox (i.e. an ox's head) is later modified to 4. (see Fig. i, cols, i and 2). Beth means house, drawn O , thence formalized into 9 and ultimatedly turned round and closed
into our B. Mem means water, and the representation of its ripple ** can still be seen in all symbols for M, including our own. Cf. P. Kyle McCarter, Jr.', The Antiquity of the Greek Alphabet and the Early Phoenician Scripts (Harvard Semitic Monographs, ix; Missoula, 1975), and G. R. Driver, Semitic Writing from Pictograph to Alphabet, newly rev. ed. by S. A. Hopkins (London, 1976), especially pp. 171-9 and 266-9. '* On boustrophedon writing see Ernst Zinn, 'Schlangenschrift,' Archdologischer An&iger (Beiblatt zum Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts, Ixv-lxvi [1950-51]), cols. 1-36; reprinted by Gerhard Pfohl, op. cit. (footnote 11 above), pp. 293-320. 16 On the earliest uses of alphabetic numerals in Greek, see Lloyd W. Daly, Contributions to a History of Alphabetization in Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Brussels, 1967), pp. 11 f., with further references. For a general discussion, see W. F. Richardson, 'The Greek Number System,' Prudentia, ix (1977), pp. 15-26.
8
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
FIGURE 1. Semitic and Greek alphabets Col. i gives the Semitic names; col. 2, the characters written in the inscription of Mesha, king of Moab (±850 B.C.); col. 3, the usual (square) Hebrew characters; col. 4, old Greek letters, mainly from the isle of Thera, written from right to left; col. 5, the same, written from left to right; col. 6, the normal Attic characters.
THE GREEK ALPHABET
9
letters of the alphabet stood for the digits, the obsolete digamma being retained for 6, and the remaining letters for tens and hundreds, the obsolete koppa being retained for 90, and the obsolete sampi for 900. Written with a tick or a horizontal line above the letter to indicate that it is to be taken as a numeral, the letters of the alphabet have the following values: a' = i 0'= 2 7' = 3 d'= 4 e'= 5
£' = 60 o'= 70 TT' = 80 9'or^'=90 p'= 100
r=7
i'=300
F' or 5-' = 6
a' = 200
7}' = 8 0' = 9 C= 10 *' = 2 0
i/ = 400 0' = 500 x'= 600 ^' = 700
' =30 p,' = 4 0 v' = 50
a>' = 800 ~Y = 900 ,a = 1000 etc.
Because the letters of a Greek word can also carry a numerical value, it is possible to assign a number to any proper name by adding together the numerical equivalents of the several letters. Thus, according to Rev. 13:18 the number of the beast is 666; that is, 666 is the total of the numerical values of the letters comprising the name of the beast. By employing this system, called gematria, both orthodox and heretical Christians were able to 'prove' the most astounding statements. For example, the author of the second-century Epistle of Barnabas uses gematria to show that Jesus Christ is in the Book of Genesis. Referring to the narrative about Abraham, who took 318 men with him in an attempt to rescue his nephew Lot from the clutches of King Chedorlaomer and the other kings of the plain (Gen. 14:14), the author declares (in 9.8) that this number is equivalent to 300 and to 18—and we must acknowledge that he is correct thus far. Then he 'discovers' that 300 is represented by T, which reminds him of the cross with its outstretched cross-bar, and that 18 is equivalent to 07, the first two letters of the Greek name (see Plate 5). Ergo, hidden in the first book of the Old Testament one finds a representation of Jesus on the cross! Many a Church Father, including even St. Augustine, was intrigued by this edifying tidbit, not considering that in the days of Abraham the Greek alphabet was not yet in existence.
10
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
§6. O F F S H O O T S OF THE G R E E K A L P H A B E T
THE Greek alphabet occupies a unique place in the history of writing. On the one hand, it transformed the consonantal Semitic script into a modern alphabet, and gave it symmetry and art. On the other hand, its subsequent influence on non-Greek peoples, chiefly through early translations of the Scriptures, has been immense. The Coptic alphabet, used by Christians in Egypt since the second century, consists of thirty-one letters, twenty-four borrowed from the Greek uncial script and seven taken over from a more cursive variety of the demotic script to express sounds not existing in Greek. In the fourth century Bishop Ulfilas created for his Gothic translation of the Bible an alphabet of twenty-seven letters, some nineteen or twenty being taken over from uncial Greek script. In the fifth century St. Mesrop, with the help of a Greek hermit and calligrapher, Rufanos of Samosata, produced the Armenian alphabet of thirty-six letters, several of which show Greek influence. In the ninth century Sts. Cyril and Methodius, in order to translate the Bible into (Old Church Slavonic, devised the Glagolitic alphabet of forty letters, taking as a model for many of them the increasingly flamboyant Greek minuscule script of his day. Soon afterward another Slavic alphabet came into being, the Cyrillic, containing forty-three characters, of which twenty-four are derived from Greek uncial script. It is used today by the Bulgarians, the Serbs, the Ukrainians, and the Russians. Thus, the Greek alphabet, having exerted also an indirect influence upon the Etruscan and the Latin alphabets, became the progenitor of almost all European alphabets.
Ill
The Pronunciation of Greek
§7. THE SOUNDS OF GREEK LETTERS
T
HE Greek language has had an unbroken literary history from Homer to the present day. During this span of nearly three millennia, many changes have taken place, not least in pronunciation. Modern Greek has lost, besides pitch accent and vowel variety, a number of the inflectional forms of the ancient language, but is still not far removed from it. It is divided into Romaic, or the common speech , and Neo-Hellenic or katharevousa which seeks to preserve ancient forms and idioms. Although Demosthenes or Plato, for example, could probably have read and understood fairly well a book published in Neo-Hellenic, the pronunciation of it as well as of the modern spoken vernacular differs almost totally from that of ancient Greek. The question may be raised just how scholars can determine the approximate pronunciation of classical Greek. The answer is that several kinds of evidence provide a certain amount of information bearing upon this matter.17 1i) There are occasional statements concerning pronunciation made by ancient authors, particularly grammarians. (2) Plays on words may serve to show similar pronunciation. For example, Macrobius tells us that the Emperor Augustus, having learned that Herod the Great had arranged for the murder of more than one of his sons, coined the pun, 'It is better to be Herod's pig than his son (Saturnalia ii.4.11). (3) The sounds made by animals are sometimes reported in ancient Greek authors. For example, in some fragments of Attic comedy the bleating of sheep is represented by (which was certainly not pronounced vee vee as in modern Greek). (4) Representations of Greek proper names in other languages, particularly in bilingual glossaries, provide considerable assistance. (5) Comparative Indo-European linguistics enables scholars to trace kinship among related words. For example, the verb , ('I have seen,' hence 'I know') was at one time pronounced with the initial letter waw , as is shown by the similar sounding words in Latin (video), Gothic (witari), German (wissen), and Anglo-Saxon (witan; compare English 'to wit'). 17
Cf. Edgar H. Sturtevant, The Pronunciation of Greek and Latin, and ed. (Philadelphia, 1940; reprinted, Groningen, 1968); W. B. Stanford, The Sound of Greek; Studies in the Greek Theory and Practice of Euphony (Sather Lectures, 1966; Berkeley, 1967) [with accompanying
phonograph recording]; W. S. Allen, 'Varia onomatopoetica,' Lingua, xxi (1968), pp. i-n; and idem, Vox Graeca; A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Greek, and ed. (Cambridge, 1974). 11
12
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
(6) Metrical patterns in non-Attic poetry reveal the retention of traditional pronunciation of certain words even after the spelling had been modified. According to Allen, in Homer an original f accounts in some 2,300 cases for absence of elision as well as for other so-called irregularities of meter.18 §8. ACCENT, O R A L AND W R I T T E N
IT is generally acknowledged that in classical Greek accent was basically one of pitch ('tonal accent') rather than one of stress ('dynamic accent'). It is thought that the difference between the pitch of the syllable bearing the accent and that of syllables which did not was approximately a musical fifth, say C to G or do to sol. (The absolute level of the voice's pitch was not, of course, fixed and would vary with changing moods and from person to person.) According to tradition it was Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 257-180 B.C.), successor to Eratosthenes as head of the Alexandrian Library, who devised the several accent and breathing marks in order to help increasing numbers of foreigners learn how to pronounce Greek. He used the acute mark, called 6£us ('sharp, acute'), to denote a rise in pitch, and the grave mark, called 0apvs ('heavy, grave'), to denote a fall in pitch. The circumflex denoted a rise followed by a fall in pitch. The change from a tonal to a stress accent in Greek cannot be precisely dated. It seems clear that it had taken place by the latter part of the second century A.D., when Clement of Alexandria composed hymns in meters based on stress accentuation. How much earlier the change had occurred and how pervasive it was we do not know.19 The rough (h) and the smooth (H) breathing marks (Trvev^ara) at first represented the left and the right half of the letter H, which in the Old Attic alphabet indicated aspiration. Before long they became respectively L and -1 and eventually (in the eleventh century) these forms became the rounded ' and ' familiar to us today. Only occasionally are marks of breathing found in the more ancient manuscripts, and then it is generally the rough breathing that is indicated (see Plates 9 and 11). In modern Greek the rough breathing, though written, is disregarded in pronunciation. When Greek was written for native Greek readers, or for those who were well acquainted with the language, accent and breathing marks were not normally used (any more than we indicate the accent when writing ordinary English). In papyri and the earlier uncial manuscripts marks of this sort are rare and sporadic. By about the seventh century scribes tend to introduce accent and breathing marks in greater numbers, and by the ninth century they are universally used in uncial and minuscule manuscripts. Double accent marks (acute or grave) are sometimes used to distinguish the particles fj,ev and 8e (see Plate 33).20 Double dots 18
Allen, Vox Graeca, p. 46; cf. also p. 48. '» Cf. C. M. Knight, 'The Change from the Ancient to the Modern Greek Accent,' Journal of Philology (Cambridge), xxxv (1919-20), pp. 51-71.
J0
For double accents, see pp. 482-4 in the comprehensive discussion of Moritz Reil, 'Zur Akzentuation griechischer Handschriften,' Byzantinische J^eitschrift, xix (1910), pp. 476-529.
THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK
13
(the diaeresis) are frequently employed to help the reader pick out i or v (see Plates 4, 7, and 9). In the course of the development of koine Greek several vowels and diphthongs came to be pronounced alike.21 Eventually in the early Byzantine period (as also in modern Greek) the vowels 77, i, and v and the diphthongs et, ot, and ut were all pronounced like long e in English (the substitution of one of these vowels or diphthongs for another is called itacism). Likewise, o and co, as well as at and e (see Plate 5), were not sharply distinguished in pronunciation. As a consequence, scribes were liable to make mistakes in the spelling of words that now were pronounced alike. Thus, (i John 1:4), (Rom. 5:1), (Luke 14:17), and (i Cor. 15:54) have been confused by scribes who wrote one word while intending to write the other. In classical Greek the use of the ww-moveable in order to avoid hiatus and elision was restricted to certain grammatical categories (words ending in -
21 Besides occasional references in grammars of New Testament Greek, see A. H. Foster, 'The Pronuncia-
tion of Greek in New Testament Times,' Anglican Theological Review, v (1922-23), pp. 108-15.
IV
The Making of Ancient Books
§9. THE M A T E R I A L S OF A N C I E N T B O O K S
T
HE materials most widely used for making books in Graeco-Roman antiquity were papyrus and parchment. Of the two, papyrus was by far the more highly regarded. 'Civilization—or at the very least, human history—depends on the use of papyrus,' remarked the Roman antiquarian Pliny the Elder describing the method of manufacture of this writing material.' In his day no fewer than nine varieties in size and grade of papyrus sheets were available in the marketplace. Papyrus is an aquatic plant of the sedge family that grew abundantly in the shallow waters of the Nile in the vicinity of the delta. When mature the plant, which resembles a stalk of corn (maize), was harvested and the stem cut into sections twelve to fifteen inches in length. Each of these was split open lengthwise and the core of pith removed. After the pith was sliced into thin strips, these tapelike pieces were placed side by side on a flat surface, and another layer placed crosswise on top. The two layers were then pressed firmly together until they formed one fabric—a fabric which, though sometimes so brittle now that it can be crumbled into powder, once had a strength equal to that of good, hand-made paper.23 Somewhat more durable as writing material was parchment.24 This was made from the skins of sheep, calves, goats, antelopes, and other animals. The younger the animal, the finer was the quality of skin. Vellum was the finest quality of extrathin parchment, sometimes obtained from animals not yet born. After the hair had been removed by scraping, the skins were washed, smoothed with pumice, and dressed with chalk. Before the parchment sheet was used for writing, the horizontal lines as well as the vertical margins were marked by scoring the surface
' 'Cum chartae usu maxime humanitas vitae constet, certe memoria,' Natural History, xiii, 21 (68); cf. also Karl Dziatzko, Untersuchungen fiber ausgewdhlte Kapitel des antiken Buchweserts; mit Text, Ubersetzung und Erkldrung von Plinius, Nat. Hist, xiii, §68-69 (Leipzig, 1900); Alfred Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th ed. (London, 1962), pp. 137-40; Ian V. O'Casey, The Nature and Making of Papyrus (Barkston Ash, Yorkshire, 1973); and Naphtali Lewis, Papyrus in Classical Antiquity (Oxford, 1974). 13 On the relatively great durability of papyrus, see T. C. Skeat, 'Early Christian Book-Production,' The Cambridge History of the Bible, vol. 2, The West Jrom the Fathers to the Reformation, ed. G. W. H. Lampe (Cambridge, 1969), pp. 59 f. 24 The word 'parchment' is derived from the name
Pergamum, a city of Asia Minor (cf. Rev. 2:19). Pliny the Elder (Nat. Hist. XIII.xxi.68-xxvii.83) tells us that rivalry between King Ptolemy of Egypt and King Eumenes of Pergamum in enlarging their respective libraries prompted the former to put an embargo on the export of papyrus, whereupon the Pergamenes 'discovered' parchment. Actually, however, parchment had been used as writing material long before the altercation reported by Pliny. Cf. Karl Liithi, Das Pergament. Seine Geschichte, seine Anwendung (Bern, 1938); R. R. Johnson, 'Ancient and Medieval Accounts of the 'Invention' of Parchment,' California Studies in Classical Antiquity, iii (1970), pp. 115-22; Ronald Reed, Ancient Skins, Parchments, and Leathers (Studies in Archaeological Sciences; London and New York, 1972); and idem, The Nature and Making of Parchment (Leeds, 1975).
14
THE MAKING OF ANCIENT BOOKS
15
with a blunt-pointed instrument drawn along a rule. It was sufficient to draw the lines on one side of the sheet (usually the flesh-side), since they were visible also on the other side. In many manuscripts these guide lines can still be noticed, as also the pinpricks that the scribe made first in order to guide him in ruling the parchment. Different schools of scribes employed different procedures of ruling, and occasionally it is possible for the modern scholar to identify the place of origin of a given manuscript by comparing its ruling pattern (as it is called) with those in other manuscripts whose place of origin is known.25 Vellum intended for deluxe volumes, perhaps as presentation copies to royalty, would be dyed a deep purple and written with gold and/or silver ink (see Plate 20). Ordinary books were written with black or brown ink (§11) and sometimes had decorative headings and initial letters26 colored with blue or yellow or (most often) red ink—whence the word 'rubric,' from ruber, the Latin word for 'red.5 The advantages of parchment over papyrus for the making of books seem obvious to us today. It was somewhat tougher and more durable than papyrus, which deteriorates faster in a damp climate. Moreover, parchment leaves could receive writing without difficulty on both sides, whereas the vertical direction of the fibers on the verso side of a sheet of papyrus may have made that side less satisfactory than the recto as a writing surface. Finally, parchment had an advantage over papyrus in that it could be manufactured anywhere. On the other hand, parchment also had its disadvantages. For one thing, the edges of parchment leaves are liable to become puckered and uneven. Furthermore, according to the observation of Galen,27 the famous Greek physician of the second century A.D., parchment, which is shiny, strains the eyes of the reader more than does papyrus, which does not reflect so much light. During the Middle Ages the Arabs learned the technique of making paper from rags. Although less strong than parchment or vellum, paper was more supple and cheaper. By the twelfth and thirteenth centuries paper manuscripts became more and more numerous. §IO. THE
FORMAT
OF A N C I E N T B O O K S
THERE were two main forms of books in antiquity. The older form was the roll. This was made by fastening sheets of parchment or papyrus together side by side, and then winding the long strip around a dowel of wood, bone, or metal, thus producing a volume (a word derived from the Latin volumen, meaning 'something 25 Kirsopp and Silva Lake identify 175 ruling patterns in their Dated Greek Minuscule Manuscripts to the Tear 1200 A.D. (Monumenta Palaeographica Vetera, First Series, Parts i-x; Boston, 1934-1939); this number is increased to 800 patterns in J. Leroy, Les Types de reglure des manuscrits grecs (Paris, 1976). Cf. also Leroy, 'La description codicologique des manuscrits grecs de parchemin,' in La paleographie grecque et byzantine (Paris, 1977), PP- 27-44-
26 For decorated letters see C. Franc-Sgourd£ou, 'Les initials historides dans les manuscrits byzantines aux XI e -XII e s.,' Byzantinoslavica, xxviii (1967), pp. 336-54, and especially Carl Nordenfalk, Die spatantiken Zierbuchstaben, a vols. (Stockholm, 1970). For examples of decorated initials in the present volume, see Plates 33 and 40, 27 Opera, iii, p. 776, and xviii, p. 630 (ed. C. G. Ktthn).
16
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
rolled up')- The writing*was placed in columns, each about 2^ to 3^ inches wide running at right angles to the length of the writing surface. Usually only one side of the writing surface was utilized. The maximum average length of such a roll was about thirty-five feet;28 anything longer became excessively unwieldy to handle. Ancient authors therefore would divide a lengthy literary work into several 'books,' each of which could be accommodated in one roll. The other common form of books in antiquity was the codex, or 'leaf-book.' This was made from either parchment or papyrus in a format resembling modern books. A certain number of sheets,29 double the width of the page desired, were stacked on top of one another and folded down the middle. It is obvious that a given number of sheets will produce twice the number of leaves and four times the number of pages. The system of four sheets/eight leaves/sixteen pages eventually became the standard format, and from the Latin word quaternio, meaning la set of four,' was derived the English word 'quire'—which has come to be used (against its etymology) for a gathering, whatever the number of sheets. At first, most codices were made in single-quire format.30 The disadvantages of such a format are obvious. Besides being pudgy and somewhat clumsy to use, a single-quire codex tends to break at the spine. Furthermore, if the book is to have an even appearance when it is closed, it must be trimmed along the fore-edge, and this results in the pages at the middle of the book being narrower than those on the outside. For these reasons scribes eventually found it to be more advantageous to assemble a number of smaller quires and to stitch them together at the back. There was an art connected with the manufacture of such codices. Since the hair-side of parchment is slightly yellower in colpr than the flesh-side, the aesthetically-minded scribe was careful to place the sheets in such a way that wherever the codex was opened the flesh-side of one sheet would face the flesh-side of another sheet, and the hair-side face hair-side. Similarly, in making a papyrus codex careful scribes would assemble sheets of papyrus in such a sequence that the direction of the fibers of any two pages facing each other would run either horizontally or vertically.31
a * So F. G. Kenyon, 'Book Division in Greek and Latin Literature,' William Warner Bishop, A Tribute, ed. by Harry M. Lydenberg and Andrew Keogh (New Haven, 1941), pp. 63-75; CSP- P- 6829 The sheets for a papyrus codex were usually obtained by cutting them to a given size from a long roll of papyrus writing material, the roll having been previously manufactured by gluing together sheets of a standard size (kollemata). Today the joins (kolleseis) from the roll of material are sometimes visible in the pages of a codex. See James M. Robinson's detailed discussion, 'On the Codicology of the Nag Hammadi Codices,' Les textes de Nag Hammadi . . ., ed. by Jacques-E M6nard (Leiden, 1975), pp. 15-31; idem,
'The Manufacture of the Nag Hammadi Codices,' Essays on the Nag Hammadi Texts in Honour of Pahor Labib, ed. by Martin Krause (Leiden, 1975), pp. 17090; and idem, 'The Future of Papyrus Codicology,' The Future of Coptic Studies, ed. by Robert McL. Wilson (Leiden, 1979), pp. 23-70, esp. 23-27. *° For a list of single-quire codices, see Eric G. Turner, The Typology of the Early Codex (Philadelphia, 1977), PP- 58-603' On recto and verso in manuscripts, see E. G. Turner, The Terms Recto and Verso; the Anatomy of the Papyrus Roll (Actes du XVe Congres International de Papyrologie, Premiere Partie; Papyrologica Bruxellensia, 16; Brussels, 1978).
THE MAKING OF ANCIENT BOOKS
17
It is obvious that the advantages of the codex form of book greatly outweigh those of the scroll. The Church soon found that economy of production (since both sides of the page were used) as well as ease when consulting passages (no need to unroll the more cumbersome scroll) made it advantageous to adopt the codex rather than the scroll for its sacred books. It may be, also, that the desire to differentiate the external appearance of the Christian Bible from that of Jewish scrolls of the synagogue was a contributing factor in the adoption of the codex format.32 In the present volume Plates 1,2, and 3 show fragments from rolls; the fragment in Plate 8 may be from a roll; all the other Plates reproduce pages, or portions of pages, from codices. §11. PEN,
INK,
AND OTHER WRITING
MATERIALS
FROM time immemorial the Greeks wrote on parchment and papyrus with a reed sometimes also with a tiny brush. When the stalk of the reed had been thoroughly dried, one end of it was sharpened to a point and slit into two equal parts. We first hear of the quill pen in the fifth or sixth century A.D., but no doubt it was in use before that. The ink used by Greek scribes for writing on papyrus was a carbonbase ink, black in color, made from soot, gum, and water. Since this kind of ink did not stick well to parchment, another kind was devised. One recipe for this second kind used nut-galls (oak-galls). These were pulverized and then water was poured over the powder. Sulfate of iron was afterward added to it, as well as gum arabic. By the fourth century after Christ this type of ink tended to supersede carbon-based ink even for writing on papyrus. Nut-gall ink in the course of time takes on a rusty-brown color. The chemical changes it undergoes may, in fact, liberate minute quantities of sulphuric acid that can eat through the writing material (see Plate 20). Other colors of ink were also used. Titles, first lines of chapters, and even whole manuscripts were sometimes written with red ink. This was made from minerals, either cinnabar or minium . Purple i n k w a s made of a liquid secreted by two kinds of gastropods, the murex and the purpura. The writing on some vellum manuscripts is in silver and/or gold letters. The vellum of these codices is often purple, but sometimes it is white. Such editions de luxe were costly and valuable, and they were usually intended for great dignitaries of church and state. Purple manuscripts that have survived include uncial copies of the Gospels dating from the sixth century (Gregory-Aland 0, N, S, <£, and 080) 32 See Peter Katz, 'The Early Christians' Use of Codices instead of Rolls,' Journal of Theological Studies, xliv (1945), pp. 63-5. For a different view see Saul Lieberman, Hellenism in Jewish Palestine (New York, 1950), Appendix on 'Jewish and Christian Codices,' pp. 203-8, and for a list and discussion of nearly one
hundred pre-Constantinian Biblical papyri, see E. A. Judge and S. R. Pickering, 'Biblical Papyri prior to Constantine: Some Cultural Implications of their Physical Form,' Prudentia, x (1978), pp. 1-13, espedaily pp. 5 ff.
18
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
and the ninth century (/36), and minuscule copies from the ninth and tenth centuries (565 and 1143 respectively). In a remarkable copy of the Gospels dating from the fourteenth century, which once belonged to the Medicis (Gregory-Aland 16), the general run of the narrative is written in vermillion; the words of Jesus and angels are crimson and occasionally in gold; the words quoted from the Old Testament and those spoken by the disciples are blue; and, finally, the words of the Pharisees, Judas Iscariot, and the devil are black. Besides pen and ink, other implements used by ancient and mediaeval scribes included a ruler or straightedge ' * and a stylus or a thin lead disk for drawing lines on the parchment; a pair of compasses for keeping the lines equidistant from each other; a sponge for making erasures and for wiping off the point of the pen; a piece of pumice stone for smoothing the nib of the pen as well as roughnesses on the papyrus or parchment; a penknife to sharpen the pen; and an inkstand to hold the ink. §12. P A L I M P S E S T S
SOMETIMES the parchment of a manuscript was used a second (or even a third) time. Particularly during a period of economic recession, when the cost of writing materials increased, an older, worn-out volume would be used again. The original writing was scraped and washed off, the surface re-smoothed, and the new literary material written on the salvaged pages. Such a manuscript is called a palimpsest, which means 'rescraped' (from ). Several processes have been used in the attempt to read the almost totally obliterated underwriting. In the nineteenth century certain chemical reagents (such as ammonium hydrosulphide) were employed to bring out traces of the ink remaining in the parchment. The twentieth century has seen the use of the ultra-violet lamp and, still more recently, the vidicon camera, which acquires an image of very, very faint writing in digital form, records it on magnetic tape, and then reproduces it by an electro-optical process.33 One of the half-dozen or so most important parchment manuscripts containing portions of the Old and New Testaments in Greek is such a palimpsest. Its name is codex Ephraemi rescriptus, dating from the fifth century.34 In the twelfth century it was erased and many of the sheets rewritten with the text of a Greek translation of thirty-eight treatises or sermons by St. Ephraem, a Syrian Church Father of the fourth century. (This is not the only instance when sermons have 33 For a des9ription of the last-mentioned process, see John F. Benton, Alan R. Gillespie, and James M. Soha, 'Digital Image-Processing Applied to the Photography of Manuscripts, with Examples Drawn from the Pincus MS of Arnald of Villanova,' Scriptorium, xxxiii (1979), pp. 40-55. 3 « The under-writing was deciphered and edited by Tischendorf (Leipzig, 1843) before the invention of the ultra-violet lamp. For a list of additions and correc-
tions gained by the use of such a lamp, see Robert W. Lyon, 'A Re-Examination of Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus,' New Testament Studies, v (1958-59), pp. 26072. J. Harold Greenlee has given attention to the under-writing of nine other fragmentary New Testament manuscripts (namely 0103, 0104, 0132, 0134, 0135, 0209, 0245, O246> and 0247); see his Nine Uncial Palimpsests of the Greek New Testament (Studies and Documents, vol. xxxix; Salt Lake City, 1968).
THE M A K I N G OF ANCIENT BOOKS
19
covered over the Scripture text!) Sometimes the under-writing of palimpsests was not thoroughly expunged, and in these cases, particularly when it happens to stand between the columns of the upper writing, one can decipher it without undue difficulty (see Fig. 9 and Plate 30). The palimpsesting of manuscripts came to be prohibited by the Church. Among the canons passed by the Trullan Synod (A.D. 592) for the Quinisext Ecumenical Council, the 68th canon forbids the sale of old manuscripts of the Scriptures to ('book dealers'), or ('perfumers'), or to any person whatever.
V
The Transcribing of Greek Manuscripts
§13. S C R I B E S AND T H E I R W O R K
P
RIOR to the invention of printing with movable type in the middle of the fifteenth century, each copy of every piece of literature was produced by hand— a long and painstaking task, fraught with possibilities of introducing accidental changes into the text. Books were expensive, for it would take many weeks or even months to finish a handwritten copy of a literary treatise of considerable length. Something of the drudgery of copying can be appreciated from the colophons, or notes, that scribes not infrequently appended at the close of their handiwork. A typical example, found in many non-Biblical manuscripts, expresses relief: 'As travellers rejoice to see their home country, so also is the end of a book to those who toil [in writing].' Other manuscripts close with an expression of gratitude: 'The end of the book—thanks be to God!' A traditional colophon that occurs in more than one manuscript of the ancient classics describes the physiological effects of copying: 'Writing bows one's back, thrusts the ribs into one's stomach, and fosters a general debility of the body.' In an Armenian manuscript of the Gospels a scribal note complains that a heavy snow-storm was raging outside, and that the scribe's ink froze, his hand became numb, and the pen fell from his fingers. Along with such colophons reflecting the difficulties and drudgery of copying manuscripts, there are others that express the scribe's feeling of satisfaction at having created an immortal work. A frequently occurring colophon is the couplet:
('The hand that wrote [this] moulders in a tomb, but what is written abides across the years [lit. to fullest times]').35 Christian scribes, for the most part monks under the supervision of a prior often make reference to their unworthiness, describing themselves with such derogatory epithets as 'least,' 'the very least,' 'poor,' 'wretched,' 'thrice wretched,' 'unprofitable,' 'the most clumsy of all men,' 'a sinner,' 'a sinner of all sinners,' 'the greatest of sinners,' and the like.36 Not infrequently the scribe will add a prayer to God or Christ to have mercy upon him (see Plates 26, 32, 39, and 43). 35 Cf. Gerard Garitte, 'Sur une formule des colophons de manuscrits grecs,' Collectanea Vaticana in honorem Anselmi M. Card. Albareda, i (Vatican City, 1962), pp. 369-91, who lists fifty-one examples of the colophon. Supplements to Garitte's list were made>by St. Y. Rudberg, Scriptorium, xx (1966), pp. 66 f.;
K. Treu (who added 52 items), ibid., xxiv (1970), pp. 56-64; and J. Koder, ibid., xxviii (1974), p. 295. J6 For other epithets of depreciation, see C. Wendel, 'Die Tairftvorris des griechischen Schreibermonches,' Byzantinische ^eitschrift, xliii (1950), pp. 259-66.
20
THE TRANSCRIBING OF GREEK MANUSCRIPTS
21
Two modes of producing manuscripts were in common use in antiquity. According to one procedure, an individual would procure writing material and make a new copy, word by word and letter by letter, from an exemplar of the literary work desired. It was inevitable (as anyone can see who tries to copy by hand an extensive document) that accidental changes would be introduced into the text as it was transmitted by successive generations of copyists. The accuracy of the new copy would, of course, depend upon the degree of the scribe's familiarity with the language and content of the manuscript being transcribed, as well as upon the care exercised in performing the task. In the early years of the Christian Church, marked by rapid expansion and consequent increased demand by individuals and by congregations for copies of the Scriptures, the speedy multiplication of copies, even by non-professional scribes, sometimes took precedence over strict accuracy of detail. But even for the best trained and most conscientious scribe, the likelihood of error was compounded by certain features of ancient writing. In uncial Greek script certain letters resemble other letters, and if the exemplar was worn and the condition of the ink poor, one can understand that a scribe might easily confuse the letters e, 6, o, and c. Such confusion, in fact, accounts for the variant readings '6s and 0e6s (oc and 9c; see §21) in i Tim. 3:16. In 2 Pet. 2:13 the variant readings and are palaeographically very similar. If A is written too close to another A, the two can be mistaken for M—which accounts for the variant readings in Rom. 6:5. The question whether Justus, mentioned in Acts 18:7, was surnamed Titius or Titus depends on whether one reads The collocation of letters is made still more confusing by the presence of ONOMATI immediately preceding the name. Another possible source of error would confront the scribe when two adjacent or nearly adjacent lines of writing in the exemplar happened to end with the same word or sequence of letters. In such circumstances the scribe, in looking back to the exemplar, might inadvertently omit the intervening line or lines. (In technical language, such an error arises from parablepsis, occasioned by homoeoteleuton, or the 'similar ending' of lines.) In i John 2:23 the Textus Receptus, following the later manuscripts, lacks the words —an error that arose when the eye of the scribe mistakenly passed from the words in the first half of the verse to the same three words at the close of the verse. The other mode of producing books was that followed at a scriptorium. Here a lector would read aloud, slowly and distinctly, from the exemplar while several scribes seated about him would write, producing simultaneously as many new copies as there were scribes at work.37 Although it increased produc37 Cf. T. C. Skeat, 'The Use of Dictation in Ancient Book-Production,' Proceedings of the British Academy, xlii (1956), pp. 196 ff. During the Middle Ages scribes would write while seated at a desk or table; in antiquity, on the other hand, it appears that they wrote either while seated
and holding the writing material on their knee or lap or sometimes while standing and holding a writing tablet in their hand. For discussions see B. M. Metzger, 'When Did Scribes Begin to Use Writing Desks?' Historical and Literary Studies, Pagan, Jewish, and Christian (Leiden and Grand Rapids, 1968), pp. 123-37, and
22
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
tivity, dictation also multiplied the types of errors that could creep into a text. A particular source of trouble arose from the circumstance that certain vowels came to be pronounced alike. For example, as was mentioned earlier (§8), in the course of time the pronunciation of the Greek pronouns of the first and second persons plural became indistinguishable. Consequently, in the New Testament it is sometimes difficult or impossible to decide on the basis of divergent evidence in the manuscripts which form was originally intended by the author. On the whole, however, many such errors in transcription would be caught by the ('corrector') of the scriptorium, who inspected for accuracy the finished work of individual scribes. The corrector's work in a manuscript is usually revealed by different handwriting, different ink, and the 'secondary' placing of his work in relation to the principal handwriting. Deletions may be indicated by enclosing a passage in round brackets; by cancelling a letter or letters by means of a stroke drawn through them; by placing a dot ('expunging dot') above, or below, or to either side; or by a combination of these methods (see Plates 7, 33, and 37). §14. STYLES OF G R E E K
HANDWRITING
BASICALLY there were two kinds of Greek handwriting and several kinds of letters. The book-hand was the more elegant and formal script, customarily employed for literary works; the cursive-hand was the everyday script, ordinarily used for nonliterary documents such as letters, accounts, petitions, deeds, receipts, and the like. The variety of cursive hands was well-nigh infinite; the nonliterary papyri testify to this in a most eloquent way.38 According to the terminology used by many (though not all39) palaeographers, there were four kinds of Greek letters—capitals, uncials, cursives, and minuscules (see Fig. 2). Capitals, characterized by angularity and straight lines, are used in inscriptions, being cut or engraved on some hard substance, such as stone or metal. Each letter is made separate and distinct from every other letter. Uncials are a modification of capitals, in which curves are freely introduced as being more readily inscribed with a pen on parchment or papyrus. For example, SE in capitals is written ce in uncials. Both capitals and uncials are written as though bounded between two horizontal lines that determine the height and the size of the letters, with only one or two projecting above or below. This 'bilinear' quality is particularly noticeable in the calligraphic production of Bibles, in which scribes maintained an extraordinary evenness of script from the first page to the last. G. M. Parassoglou, 'AcgiA dp nal y6w. Some Thoughts on the Positions of the Ancient Greeks and Romans When Writing on Papyrus Rolls,' Scrittura e civilta, iii (1979), PP-5-2i. 38 Referring to Latin hands, E. A. Lowe aptly remarks, 'Cursive script is to calligraphy what dialect is to literary diction' ('Handwriting,' in The Legacy of the Middle Ages, ed. by C. G. Crump and E. F. Jacob [Oxford, 1938], p. 205). 39 Among present-day palaeographers who do not
accept the traditional terminology are Guglielmo Cavallo, who uses 'majuscules' for the category usually called 'uncials,' and E. G. Turner, who restricts the use of 'uncial' to Latin palaeography (in accord with the explicit testimony of Jerome; cf. his PraeJ. in Lib. lob, Migne, Patrologia Latino, xxviii, col. 1142) and uses the term 'capital' for all ancient Greek handwriting in which 'each letter is made by itself, for itself, and stands alone, i.e. is unligatured' (letter dated 22 November 1978).
THE TRANSCRIBING OF GREEK MANUSCRIPTS
FIGURE 2. Development of the Greek alphabet
23
24
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
For daily use this way of writing took too much time, and at an early date cursive writing developed from the uncial and continued to be used concurrently with it. Besides being more convenient, cursive letters were often simplified as well as combined when the scribe would join two or more together without lifting the pen (ligature). At the beginning of the ninth century a special form of the cursive was developed which came almost immediately into widespread use for the production of books, supplanting uncial hands (see §16). It mtist be borne in mind that most of the books of the New Testament were originally not intended for publication, and others were meant for only a limited circle of readers. It is understandable, therefore, that the original of, say, one of the New Testament Epistles would have been written in a cursive form of script, quite different in appearance from the earliest known copies of that Epistle which are extant today. §15. U N C I A L H A N D W R I T I N G
FROM the fourth century B.C. till the eighth or ninth century A.D. the book-hand changed very slowly and often harked back to earlier styles. During a given period more than one style of book-hand was in use, and the transition from one style to a new one always lasted at least one generation (see p. 50). What Schubart called ^ierstil, or 'decorated style' with serifs and roundels,40 developed in the second and first centuries B.C. (see Plate 2); it continues to turn up in succeeding centuries at least as late as the third century A.D.41 The style of writing called Biblical Uncial or Biblical Majuscule—though its use is by no means confined to copies of the Bible—takes its name from its resemblance to the stately hands of the great Biblical codices, Vaticanus, Sinaiticus, and Alexandrinus (Plates 13, 14, and 18). Of all styles of ancient handwriting this one attained the greatest fixity of form. The upsilon regularly and the rho often extend below the line. From about the fifth century A.D. the vertical strokes of writing became thicker and in p, y> 4>5 and y longer, while the horizontal or sloping strokes of r, A, e, z, K, IT, c, and T often acquired heavy dots or serifs at their ends. The mute iota is seldom written; when it does occur, it is, of course, written adscript. 40 Wilhelm Schubart, Griechische Palaeographie (Munich, 1925; reprinted, 1966), pp. 22 and 97 ff. Turner, however, questions whether the presence of serifs and decorative roundels without further discrimination is adequate to characterize a style (E. G. Turner, Greek Manuscripts of the Ancient World [Oxford and Princeton, 1971], p. 25). For a description of various kinds of decorative appendages, see Andr6 Bataille, Pour une terminologie en paliographie grecque (Paris, 1954), pp. 39-40. 41 The extended currency of this style of handwriting for several centuries B.C. and A.D. casts doubt on O'Callaghan's attempt to date certain Greek papyrus
fragments from Qumran Cave VII to about A.D. 50. See Jos6 O'Callaghan's 'ePapiros neotestamentarios en la cueva 7 de Qumran?' Biblica, liii (1972), pp. 91-100 (English trans, by Wm. L. Holladay, Supplement to Journal of Biblical Literature, xcii, no. 2 [June, 1972]), followed by several other articles and a book entitled Los papiros griegos de la cueva 7 de Qumran (Madrid, 1974). Furthermore, O'Callaghan's identification of the contents of the fragments as New Testament has found little or no support (see p. 62 below, note i). His views have been carried to quite unjustifiable conclusions by David Estrada and William White, Jr., The First New Testament (Nashville, 1978).
THE TRANSCRIBING OF GREEK MANUSCRIPTS
25
The sixth and seventh centuries saw the development of a hand commonly called the Coptic Uncial42—though Gardthausen43 objected to the nomenclature. Characteristic of this hand are formal rounded letters of large size, and omega often has an elongated central shaft. As time went on, the style of uncial writing began to deteriorate. It lost the grace of the earlier specimens; sometimes it was written with a marked slope to the right, and sometimes the strokes were heavy and cumbersome. The circular letters e, e, o, c became oval, and often were laterally compressed, thus appearing narrow in proportion to their height (see Plate 31). Breathing and accent marks, at first only sporadically employed, came to be used more regularly in the ninth century and thereafter (see §8). In its final development in the tenth and eleventh centuries, uncial writing reverted from the slanting to the upright position but lost none of its exaggerated and pictorial quality. In this form it is known as Slavonic Uncial (since the Slavs took most of their alphabet from it) and was reserved chiefly for liturgical books. §l6. M I N U S C U L E H A N D W R I T I N G
THE uncial hand had a long and distinguished history, which extended over a period of about 1500 years. It was superseded for the writing of books by a special form of cursive letters developed at the close of the eighth or beginning of the ninth century. This minuscule script was a small book-hand that could be written more rapidly as well as more compactly, thus saving both time and parchment. The credit for initiating this reform in Greek handwriting has been commonly attributed to the scholarly monks at the monastery of the Studion at Constantinople,44 but more recently it has been argued that the perfecting of the minuscule script for book production was the work of humanistic scholars who were involved in the revival of Greek culture at Constantinople during the second epoch of iconoclasm (A.D. 8i4~42).4S This modified form of the current cursive hand became popular among scribes throughout the Greek world almost at once, though some liturgical books continued for a few centuries to be written in the more stately uncial hand. Thus, Greek manuscripts generally fall into two rather well-defined groups, the earlier being written in uncials and the later in minuscules. The minuscule manuscripts 42 For a list of sixty-one examples (including twentynine Biblical texts) of manuscripts that are written in the Coptic uncial, see Jean Irigoin, 'Onciale grecque de type copte,' Jahrbuch der osterreichischen byzantinischen Gesellschaft, viii (1959), pp. 29-51. For other examples of Coptic uncial, see Turner, Greek Manuscripts, p. 126, addenda to no. 47. 43 Op. cit. (footnote 2 above), ii, pp. 249 f. 44 T. W. Allen, 'The Origin of the Greek Minuscule Hand,' Journal of Hellenic Studies, xl (1920), pp. I ff.
For the rules drawn up by the Abbot Theodore to guide monks at the Studion in Constantinople while they copied manuscripts, see Migne, Patrologia Graeca, ic, cols. 1733-1758, esp. 1739^; cf. also Eugene Marin, De Studio coenobio Constantinopolitano (Paris, 1897), and Alice Gardner, Theodore of Studium; His Life and Times (London, 1905). « So Bertrand Hemmerdinger, Essai sur I'histoire du texte de Thucydide (Paris, 1955), pp. 33~39-
26
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
of the New Testament outnumber the uncial manuscripts by about eight to one.46 The earliest dated minuscule Greek manuscript known today was written A.D. 835, probably in Constantinople, and contains the four Gospels (see Plate 26). The script is by no means novel or experimental in character. The letters are regular and well-formed, and there can be little doubt that this type of handwriting was in use for some time before A.D. 835—perhaps for more than half a century. However, no examples of minuscule writing that can be plausibly ascribed to this period have been preserved—or at least identified. Unlike uncial hands, in minuscule script the letters are often combined according to certain rules. Most letters may be connected on both sides; several, however, may be joined only on one side. Thus, f, t, v, £, o, p, <£, and co may be joined only to the preceding letter, and e, rj, /c, and
Testaments (Gottingen, 1914). In this index all manuscripts—uncials, minuscules, and papyri—are included in a single numerical sequence, which has several gaps to allow for additions. 47 An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography (Oxford, 1912), p. 220. 48 Short Manual of Greek Palaeography, 3rd ed. (Leiden, 1963), P- 3449 In Facsimiles and Descriptions of Minuscule Manuscripts of the New Testament (Cambridge, Massachusetts, I 95l)> P- 20, Hatch adopts the fourfold classification but divides the second and third periods at the year 1200.
THE TRANSCRIBING OF GREEK MANUSCRIPTS
FIGURE 3. Usual combinations of minuscule letters.
FIGURE 4. Forms of letters in minuscule codices. Col. i gives the pure forms, used in the vetustissimi codices; col. 2, altered minuscules, in cursive and uncial forms.
27
FIGURE 5. Combinations of letters used in later minuscule codices.
28
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
During the first period well-nigh all minuscule manuscripts excel in the extraordinary regularity and care with which they are written. The letters stand upright, sometimes inclining a little to the left, and are practically identical in height (see Fig. 4). Only square breathing marks are used, and the silent iota in the socalled improper diphthongs is (when represented at all) written adscript. Only occasionally do scribes combine two or more letters into what are called ligatures. The second period is characterized by an increased variety of handwriting, some varieties slanting to the right. The letters are generally pendant from the line; the breathing marks are sometimes square, sometimes rounded. Iota adscript occurs, especially in the first half of the period, and iota subscript is found in codices of the twelfth century. Uncial forms of letters, which seem to have been consciously avoided in the early part of the first period, begin to find their way back in greater numbers, and new ligatures are devised (see Fig. 5). Several distinctive types of hands were developed in this and in the following period, to which palaeographers have given names in accord with their characteristic features (such as 'Perlschrift,' 'Fettaugenmode' (!), 'minuscule bouletee,' 'en as de pique').50 The third period also displays much diversity of handwriting. In some cases the writing is neat and regular in appearance, and in others it is irregular and more or less difficult to read. A turn for the worse seems to have come after A.D. 1204, the date of the fourth crusade, when the Latins captured Constantinople. Scribes are capricious in the use of diverse forms of the same letter. They frequently use uncial forms of the letters f } A, e, H, 6, N, and c, though minuscule forms also occur. Furthermore, in both cases often a tall and a short variety will be used, with several special shapes when entering into ligatures—many of which are themselves new. The iota adscript is very rare. As the result of rapid copying (chiefly of non-Biblical texts) accents and abbreviations are sometimes linked directly with the letters themselves; for example, the acute accent is merely a stroke starting from the vowel and pointed upward, while breathing and accent are composite. Scribes often make quasi-abbreviations by writing some letters above others (see §17). In all this it is difficult to trace any logical development, as each scribe seems to have his own peculiar usage, sometimes founded upon an ancient model, sometimes quite eclectic. The fourth period begins with the invention of printing with movable type. This is generally reckoned to be A.D. 1456, though the first dated book printed completely in Greek, namely Constantine Lascaris's Erotemata (a Greek grammar), s° Cf. Herbert Hunger, 'Die Perlschrift, cine Stilrichtung der griechischen Buchschrift des 11. Jahrhunderts,' Studien zur griechischen Paldographie (Vienna, 1 954)> PP- 22-32; idem, 'Die sogenannte FettaugenMode in griechischen Handschriften des 13. und 14. Jahrhunderts,' Byzantinischen Forschungen, iv (1972), pp. 105-13 (both reprinted in Hunger, Byzantinistische Grundlagsjorschung: Gesammelte Aufsatze [London, 1973]); idem, 'Archaisierende Minuskel und Gebrauchschrift zur Bliitezeit der Fettaugenmode,' La paleographie
grecque et byzantine, Paris 21-25 Octobre 1974 (Colloques internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche scientifique, no. 559; Paris, 1977), pp. 283-90; Jean Irigoin, 'Une 6criture du Xe siecle: la minuscule bouletee,' ibid., pp. 191-99; Paul Canart, 'Le probleme du style d'6criture dit 'en as de pique' dans les manuscrits italo-grecs,' Atti del 4° congresso storico-calabrese (Naples, 1969), pp. 53-69. For the 'Zierstil' in uncial script, see footnote 40 above.
THE TRANSCRIBING OF GREEK MANUSCRIPTS
29
was published at Milan 30 January 1476 by Dionysius Paravesinus.51 The wide interest of Italian humanists in the works of classical authors, as well as the desire to form large libraries, encouraged the continued copying of manuscripts to supplement the work of printers.52 Scholars, as a rule, had private collections of manuscripts, some of them written in their own handwriting. With the general exception of Biblical and liturgical manuscripts, the copies are written mostly in a very cursive form of minuscule, with many abbreviations and ligatures. The forms of letters found in minuscule codices of this period were imitated by the early printers with astonishing fidelity, including diversity of forms of the same letter.53 In fact, instead of twenty-four characters for the letters of the alphabet, fonts of Greek type contained as many as two hundred sorts.54 It was not until the nineteenth century that the ligatures & (ou) and g (or) were abandoned. Our distinction between
OVER the centuries scribes devised various methods of saving space and time while writing Greek.55 Most copies of the Scriptures make some pretense to calligraphy and therefore the number of abbreviations is kept to a minimum; nevertheless a certain number sometimes found their way into such copies. There are several ways of abbreviating Greek: superposition of letters, combination, suspension, contraction, and the use of conventional signs and symbols. (i) Superposition, as the word itself indicates, means the placing of letters above other letters rather than next to each other. This generally takes place at the end of a word and at the end of a line. When final nu occurs in this position, it is written as a horizontal stroke above the preceding letter (see Plates 7, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15). 51
See Richard P. Breadon, 'The First Book Printed in Greek,' Bulletin of the New York Public Library, li ( J 947)> PP- 586-92. Cf. also Robert Proctor, The Printing of Greek in the Fifteenth Century (Oxford, 1900), p. 52, and Deno J. Geanakopolos, Greek Scholars in Venice, Studies in the Dissemination of Greek Learning from Byzantium to Western Europe (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1962), index s.v. 'Lascaris, Constantine.' SJ In 1492, more than a third of a century after Gutenberg's invention of printing with movable type, Johannes Trithemius wrote a treatise entitled De laude scriptorum ('In Praise of Scribes') in which he argues that printing does not render copying by hand superfluous, that not all books are as yet printed, and that those in print are neither easily accessible nor inexpensive. The Latin text is edited with an Introduction by Klaus Arnold, and translated into English by Roland Behrendt (Coronado Press, Lawrence, Kansas, 1974). For specimens of Greek manuscripts written in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, see Dieter Harlfinger, 'Zu griechischen Kopisten und Schriftstilen des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts,' La paliographie grecque et byzantine (footnote 50 above), pp. 327-62, and idem,
Specimina griechischer Kopisten der Renaissance (Berlin, r 974)> ana' on Trithemius, see Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, i (Cambridge, !979)> PP- 14-5. 94-5. and 38553 Cf. Victor Scholderer, Greek Printing Types 14651927 (London, 1927). For a list of ligatures used in early Greek printed books, see William Wallace, 'An Index of Greek Ligatures and Contractions,' Journal of Hellenic Studies, xliii (1923), pp. 183-93, and W. H. Ingram, 'The Ligatures of Early Printed Greek,' Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, vii (1966), pp. 37189-M The type used in Lascaris's Erotemata contained 55 capitals and 161 lower-case sorts, besides stops, etc. Cf. Robert Proctor, The Printing of Greek in the Fifteenth Century (Oxford, 1900), pp. 56 ff. 58 For lists of Greek abbreviations, see Al. N. Oikonomides, Abbreviations in Greek Inscriptions, Papyri, Manuscripts, and Early Printed Books (Chicago, 1974). This volume contains photolithographically reproduced lists originally drawn up by Avi-Yonah, Kenyon, Allen, and Ostermann and Giegengack.
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
30
(2) Combination of letters is achieved either by having one or more strokes in common (see Fig. 6, and Plates 15 and 20), or by writing them in or across each other (see Fig. 7).
FIGURE 6. Combinations of uncial letters.
FIGURE 7. Combination and superposition of letters.
FIGURE 8. Various abbreviations.
(3) Suspension means the omission of the end of a word. Frequently occurring examples are £p (for apx'n) and £ (for reXos) in Gospel manuscripts adapted for lectionary usage (see Plates 17, 23, 24, 31, and 32). Kat-compendium is in two forms, ft (see Plates 7, 15, and 20) and S (see Plates 33 and 36).
THE TRANSCRIBING OF GREEK MANUSCRIPTS
31
(4) Contraction involves the omission of one or more letters in the central part of the word (see §21). (5) Conventional signs and symbols indicate corrections (see end of §13), or editorial apparatus (see §22). Other marks, adapted from Greek shorthand,56 can signify a syllable or a word. They are often, though not exclusively, used at the end of words (see Fig. 8). For the staurogram and the chi-rho monogram, see Plates 17 and 35. §18. Scriptio continua IT will be noticed on even the most casual inspection that most Greek manuscripts are written without separation between words and sentences. This kind of writing, called scriptio continua, is easiest to read when one is reading aloud, syllable by syllable.57 Occasionally the grouping of syllables into words is ambiguous. For example, in Rom. 7:14 may be divided into and in i Tim. 3:16 the words may be taken as .In Lev. 5:4 uncial manuscripts read which in some editions of the Septuagint (Tischendorf; Swete) is read whereas the same letters (in accord with the Hebrew) can be read (Rahlfs). It must not be thought, however, that such ambiguities occur frequently. In Greek it is the rule, with very few exceptions, that native Greek words can terminate only in a vowel (or diphthong) or in one of three consonants, v, p, and s. In order to indicate word-division at the close of a non-Greek name, scribes would sometimes use a mark shaped like a grave accent (for example AOJT X in Plate 5) or like a smooth breathing mark (for example | in Plate 17). When it was necessary to divide a word at the end of a line, scribes were usually careful to observe the following rules: (a) all consonants go with the following vowel and begin the next line, except that X, ju, v, and p are joined to the preceding vowel when there is a following consonant; (b) double consonants are separated; and (c) compound words are generally divided into their component parts. §IQ. P U N C T U A T I O N
MARKS of punctuation occur only sporadically or not at all in the most ancient manuscripts. According to tradition the invention of a system of punctuation, like
56 Cf. H. J. M. Milne, Greek Shorthand Manuals, Syllabary and Commentary, edited from Papyri (Oxford, 1934), and the discussion (with bibliography) by B. M. Metzger, 'Stenography and Church History,' Twentieth Century Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, i (Grand Rapids, r 955)> PP- io6of. Origen, so Eusebius informs us, 'dictated to more than seven shorthand-writers, who relieved each other at fixed times, and he employed as many copyists, as well as girls skilled in calligraphy—
for all of whom Ambrose provided the necessary resources without stint' (Eccl. Hist. Vl.xxiii.a). 57 For discussions of evidence from antiquity (including Acts 8:30) that as a rule a person, even when alone, would customarily read aloud, see the literature mentioned in Metzger, The Text of the New Testament, p. 13, n. 3, supplemented by B. M. W. Knox, 'Silent Reading in Antiquity,' Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, ix (1968), pp. 421-36.
32
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
the breathing and accent marks mentioned above (§8), is commonly ascribed to Aristophanes of Byzantium. This involved the use of a single point with certain values in certain positions (0e0-eis). The high point ( I is the strongest, equivalent to a full stop; the point on the line i and the point in a middle position ( ) were used with different values by different scribes. The middle point eventually disappeared, and about the ninth century the comma was introduced. The interrogation mark (;) first appears about the eighth or ninth century. The development of the custom of dividing a text into paragraphs can be traced from stage to stage. In the Chester Beatty-Scheide Ezekiel papyrus (first half of the third century), if a paragraph finished within a line, the scribe left a space about the width of an average letter before beginning the next letter. Likewise the first letter of the next line was drawn out a little into the left-hand margin, and usually written slightly larger than the average. If a paragraph finished at the end of a line, this emphasis of the first letter of the next line was sufficient to mark the paragraph division (see Plate 10). By the middle of the fourth century the three scribes of codex Sinaiticus indicated a new paragraph by placing the first letter so that it extended slightly into the left-hand margin; the preceding line may or may not be full (see Plate 14). In the latter case scribe D usually equalized the line with one or more filling marks (the diple, >). By the fifth century the scribe of codex Alexandrinus used an enlarged letter conspicuously placed in the lefthand margin (see Plate 18). In later centuries scribes, disliking partially filled lines at the right-hand margin, would fill out the line with the opening words of the new paragraph, enlarging whatever letter happened to stand first in the following line (see Plates 36 and 37). In minuscule script it became more or less common practice to mark the conclusion of a paragraph or chapter with a more emphatic sign, such as two or more dots with or without a horizontal dash. (For the use of the lozenge, see Plate 33.) Although the exegete can learn something concerning the history of the interpretation of a passage by considering the punctuation of a passage in the manuscripts, neither the editor nor the translator need, of course, feel bound to adopt the punctuation preferred by scribes.58
*8 See the discussion by G. Lattey and F. C. Burkitt, 'The Punctuation of New Testament Manuscripts,' Journal of Theological Studies, xxix (1927-28), pp. 39698. Cf. also B. M. Metzger, 'The Punctuation of Rom. 9:5,' Christ and Spirit in the New Testament, ed. by B. Lindars and S. S. Smalley (Cambridge, 1973), pp. 95-112; reprinted in Metzger, New Testament Studies,
Philological, Versional, and Patristic (Leiden, 1980), pp. 57-74. For a brief discussion of punctuation used by ancient classical Greek writers, see Rudolf PfeiflFer, History of Classical Scholarship from the Beginning to the End of the Hellenistic Age (Oxford, 1968), pp. 179 ff. and 269.
VI
Special Features of Biblical Manuscripts
I
N addition to palaeographical and codicological features that manuscripts of the Greek Bible share with other ancient documents, the former contain certain special features. Most of these are intended, in one way or another, to serve as 'helps for the reader.' §2O. THE
TETRAGRAMMATON
THE Tetragrammaton, or Tetragram, is a term denoting the mystic and ineffable name of God, written in Hebrew Bibles as mrr, that is YHWH, Yahweh with the vowels omitted. It was, and still is, considered irreverent to pronounce the Name; hence, when reading the Hebrew Scriptures it became customary to substitute the word Adonai, 'Lord' (literally, 'my lords'). When the vowel points were added to the Hebrew consonantal text, the vowels of Adonai were accordingly given to the Tetragrammaton. When writing the sacred name, devout scribes at Qumran would sometimes use palaeo-Hebrew script for the four letters, while writing the rest of the Scripture text in ordinary Hebrew (Aramaic) characters.59 At a later date the Tetragrammaton was occasionally written in letters of gold, though Tannaitic sages condemned such a practice.60 So great was the desire to preserve intact the sacred name of God that Hellenistic Jews, when translating the Hebrew Bible into Greek, copied the actual letters of the Tetragrammaton in the midst of the Greek text. Several kinds of such representation have survived,61 of which the following may be mentioned. (a) The oldest known manuscript of the Septuagint that presents the Tetra59
According to Harmut Stegemann ('Religionsgeschichtliche Erwagungen zu den Gottesbezeichnungen in den Qumrantexten,' Qumran: Sa piete, sa theologie et son milieu, ed. by M. Delcor et al. [Bibliotheca Ephemeridum theologicarum Lovaniensium, xlvi; Paris et Leuven, 1978], pp. 195-218), Dead Sea scrolls that exhibit the Tetragrammaton in archaic Hebrew letters are: Biblical texts without commentary (2QExb = aQj; 3QThreni = 3Q,3), Pesharim (4Q.pIsa = 4Q 161; iQpMicah = iQ, 14; iQpHab; iQpZeph = iQ, 75; 4QpPsa=4Q 171), and apocryphal Psalms (iQPsb = iQ //; iiQPs*); scrolls that exhibit normal square Hebrew letters for the Tetragrammaton are: Biblical texts without commentary (4QDf, ed. P. W. Skehan in BASOR, 136, 1954, pp. 12-15; 4QDtn, ed. F. M. Cross in SWDS, 20, pp. 31 f.), Pesharim (4QpIsb =*4Q 162; 4QpIsc=4Q, 163; 4QpNah = 4Q, 169; 4QpZeph = 4Q 170; 4QpPsb = 4Q 173), and apocryphal Psalms (4QPsf; uQPsb; iiQPsAp'). See also
J. P. Siegal, 'The Employment of Palaeo-Hebrew Characters for the Divine Names at Qumram in the Light of Tannaitic Sources,' Hebrew Union College Annual, xlii (1971), pp. 159-72, and Patrick W. Skehan, 'The Divine Name at Qumran, in the Masada Scroll, and in the Septuagint,' Bulletin oj the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies, no. 13 (Fall, 1980), pp. 14-44, esP- 2^ ff6o Babylonian Talmud, Shabbath o$o. For a discussion of the reasons for such a prohibition, see J. P. Siegel,'The Alexandrians in Jerusalem and their Torah Scroll with Gold Tetragrammata,' Israel Exploration Quarterly, xxii (1972), pp. 39-43. 6l Besides those cited here, G. Mercati discusses instances of deformed Tetragrammata in the 'Post Scriptum' to his 'Sulla scrittura del tetragramma nelle antiche versioni greche del Vecchio Testamento,' Biblica, xxii (1941), pp. 365 f. 33
34
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
grammaton is a very fragmentary papyrus roll of Deuteronomy (P. Fouad Inv. 266), dating from the first century B.C. The more than one hundred surviving fragments of the Greek text of chapters 17-33 preserve thirty-one instances of mrr written in square Hebrew letters62 (for three such fragments, see Plate 3). Fragmentary remains of Origen's Hexapla (see §22), copied during the ninth or tenth century, also use the square letters for the divine Name (see Plate 30). (b) Fragments of a roll of the Twelve Prophets in Greek, found in a cave (Nahal Hever) near Engedi in the Judean Desert, dating, it is thought, from about 50 B.C.—A.D. 50, contain instances of the Tetragrammaton in palaeo-Hebrew letters.63 The same kind of archaic script is also employed in palimpsest fragments from the fifth or sixth century preserving portions of Aquila's Greek version of the Old Testament (see Fig. g).64 (c) A modification of the palaeo-Hebrew letters occurs in a papyrus fragment of Genesis (P.Oxy. 1007), dating from the latter part of the third century A.D. Here the scribe abbreviated the Tetragrammaton by doubling the initial yodf* written in the shape of a z with a horizontal line through the middle, and carried unbroken through both characters (»). The same form oiyod is found on Jewish coins of the second century B.C. This compendium (without the horizontal stroke) exactly corresponds with that employed in Hebrew manuscripts of a later period ('>).
FIGURE 9. The Tetragrammaton in archaic Hebrew letters A portion from the center-fold of a palimpsest fragment dated to the fifth or sixth century. The underwriting preserves Psalm 103:6 in Aquila's Greek version, with the Tetragrammaton in archaic Hebrew letters; the upper-writing is from the Jerusalem Talmud. Actual size, reproduced from Plate viii in C. Taylor's edition (see footnote 64 below).
61 In addition to the literature cited in the bibliography for Plate 3, see Flavio Bedodi, 'I 'nomina sacra' nei papiri greci veterotestamentari precristiani,' Studio papyrologica, xiii (1974), pp. 89-103, esp. 98 ff. 63 Cf. D. Barthelemy, Les devanciers d'Aquila: Premier publication integrate du texte des fragments du Dodecaprophiton (Leiden, 1963). As is the case with manuscripts from Qumran, the scribe does not clearly distinguish the shape oiyod from that of waw. 6 < Edited by F. C. Burkitt, Fragments of the Book of Kings according to the Translation of Aquila. . . . (Cam-
bridge, 1879), and by Cfharles] Taylor, Hebrew-Greek Cairo Genizah Palimpsests from the Taylor-Schechter Collection . . . (Cambridge, 1900). <s A. S. Hunt, The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, vii (London, 1910), pp. 1-3 (#1007). (1* was intended to provide in the present volume a photographic reproduction of the verso of the fragment, which contains the abbreviation of the Tetragrammaton, but unfortunately that side of the papyrus is so dirty and the writing so faint that even a photograph under infra-red light turned out to be unsatisfactory.)
SPECIAL FEATURES OF BIBLICAL MANUSCRIPTS
35
Besides employing Hebrew letters to write the Tetragrammaton in Greek texts, in other cases scribes have used Greek letters in order to represent the ineffable Name of God. The following are instances of such usage. (d) From Cave IV at Qumran comes a papyrus fragment of Leviticus in the Greek Septuagint that presents the divine Name phonetically in the form iAu>.66 Later the word law was adopted by Gnostics67 and by those who drew up magical formulae and amulets.68 (e) In a few Hexaplaric manuscripts (e.g. Q, 86, 88, 234™*, 264) the Greek letters TTITTI are used to represent roughly the shape of the square Hebrew letters of the Tetragrammaton (see Plate 2i). 6 9 The question may be raised what the practice would have been in Hellenistic synagogues (such as those that the Apostle Paul visited) when the reader of the Scripture lesson came upon the Hebrew Tetragrammaton in the Greek text before him. One may answer with a fair degree of confidence that, like any reader of the Hebrew Old Testament, he either would say Adonai ('Lord'), or, in keeping with 7 the Greek context, would use ° A tell-tale hint of the latter practice, as 71 Burkitt points out, is provided in the Aquila fragments; where there was no room to write the Hebrew characters, 'instead of we find ' Likewise Origen, in commenting on Psalm 2:2, says expressly that among Greeks 72 Adonai is pronounced It was inevitable, however, that by the time of Jerome, ignorant readers, imagining the Tetragrammaton to be a Greek word, actually pronounced it 'Pipi' !73
66
For a brief description of the fragment (prior to its full publication), see P. W. Skehan, 'The Qumran Manuscripts and Textual Criticism,' Vetus Testamentum, Supplement, iv (1957), p. 157; reprinted, with minor alterations, in Qumran in the History of the Biblical Text, ed. by F. M. Cross and S. Talmon (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1975), p. 271. In codex Marchalianus (Plate 21) taw occurs in two marginal annotations attached to Ezek. 1:2 and 11:1 (pp. 509 and 588). Perhaps the word was pronounced 67 For references, see G. W. H. Lampe, ed., A Patristic Greek Lexicon, s.v. 68 See the index in Karl Preisendanz, Papyri Graeci Magici, iii (Leipzig and Berlin, 1941), pp. 223 f. 69 Ceriani suggested that it may have been Origen or Eusebius who substituted the Greek letters for the Semitic form (Monumenta sacra et prof ana, ii, pp. 106 ff.); cf. also J. F. Schleusner, Novus Thesaurus . . . Veteris Testamenti, s.v. irlirt; Hatch-Redpath, Concordance, p. 1135, and Supplement, p. 126. 70 If the Apostle Paul followed a copy of the Septuagint with the Tetragrammaton written in Hebrew letters, he would no doubt have substituted Kvpios (or perhaps occasionally 0«6j) when dictating an epistle to be sent to predominately Gentile congregations. No New Testament manuscript contains the Tetragrammaton in Old Testament quotations (or anywhere else, it need scarcely be added). For further discussion, see George Howard, 'The Tetragram and the New Testament,' Journal of Biblical Literature, xcvi (1977), pp. 63-83, and, on a more popular level, idem, 'The
Name of God in the New Testament,' Biblical Archaeology Review, iv, i (1978), pp. 12-14, 5^. 71 Burkitt, op. cit. (footnote 64 above), p. 15, par. 4. 72
(Migne col. 1104A). ' In his discussion of the ten names of God, Jerome says that the ninth name 'is a tetragrammaton, which the Jews consider &.v(KvriToi>, that is ineffable, and which is written with these letters: lod, He, Vau, He; which, certain ignorant ones, because of the similarity of the characters, when they would find them in Greek books, were accustomed to pronounce Pipi' (Epist. 25, Ad Marcellam, ed. Hilberg, p. 219). In the following century Evagrius mentions the tradition that on the sacred breastplate of the High Priest was inscribed the name IIIIII (see Paul de Lagarde, Onomastica sacra, i [Gottingen, 1870], pp. 205 f.). It may be added that in the Syriac translation of the Septuagint made by Bp. Paul of Telia (A.D. 616-617), the Hebrew name of God is represented by >-*-** (pypy). This usage is discussed in a Scholion ot Jacob of Edessa (A.D. 675); see A. M. Ceriani, Monumenta sacra et profana, ii, fasc. 4 (Milan, 1863), pp. 106-12; Eberhard Nestle, %eitschrift jiir die Deutschen morganIdndischen Gesellschaft, xxxii (1878), pp. 465-508 (also pp. 735 f. and xxxiii [1879]; pp. 297 ff.), and Bernard Pick, 'Shem Hammephorash' in John McClintock and James Strong, Cyclopadia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature, ix, pp. 652 f.
36
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
§21. Nomina Sacra DURING the first centuries of the Church, Christian scribes developed a system of contractions for certain sacred words. These nomina sacra, as the Latin palaeographer Ludwig Traube called them,74 eventually came to include fifteen such terms. Some were contracted by writing only the first and the last letters others, by writing only the first two and the last letters I or the first and last two letters and ); still others, by writing the first and last syllables In order to draw the reader's attention to the presence of a nomen sacrum, the scribe would place a horizontal line above the contraction. In the developed Byzantine usage the fifteen nomina sacra in their nominative and genitive forms are as follows:
Scholars differ in accounting for the origin and development of the system of nomina sacra. According to Traube,75 their origin is to be found in the need among Hellenistic Jews for devising a Greek equivalent for the Hebrew Tetragrammaton. Others have sought to explain the nomina sacra as reflecting certain usages in secular texts. Rudberg76 and Nachmanson,77 for example, drew attention to the M Nomina Sacra: Versuch einer Geschichte der christlichen Kiirzung (Munich, 1907). This standard work is now supplemented by the additional data collected by A. H. R. E. Paap, Nomina Sacra in the Greek Papyri of the First Five Centuries A.D.: the Sources and Some Deductions (Leiden, 1959); Jos6 O'Callaghan, 'Nomina sacra' in Papyris Graecis saeculi III neotestamentariis (Analecta Biblica, 46; Rome, 1970); idem, ' 'Nominum sacrorum' elenchus in Graecis Novi Testament! papyris a saeculo IV usque ad VIII,' Studia papyrologica, x (1971), pp. 99-122; idem, 'Consideraciones sobre los 'nomina sacra' del Nuevo Testamento (del siglo IV al VIII),' Akten des XIII. International Papyrologenkongr esses, Marburg/Lahn, 1971 (Miinchener Beitrage zur Papyrusforschung und antiken Rechtsgeschichte, 66.
Heft; Munich, 1974), pp. 315-320; Flavio Bedodi, 'I 'nomina sacra' nei papiri greci veterotestamentari precristiani,' Studia papyrologica, xiii (1974), pp. 89-103; and C. H. Roberts, Manuscript, Society and Belief in Early Christian Egypt (London, 1979), pp. 26-48. w Op. cit., pp. 31 f. 76 Gunnar Rudberg, 'Zur palaographischen Kontraktion,' Eranos, x (1910), pp. 71-100; idem, 'Verschleifung und Kontraktion,' Eranos, xiii (1913), pp. 156-61; cf. also idem, Neutestamentlicher Text und Nomina sacra (Skrifter utgifna af Kungl. Humanistiska Vetenskaps-Samfundet; Uppsala, 1915); idem, 'De nominibus sacris adnotatiunculae,' Eranos, xxxiii (1933), pp. '47-5I77 Ernst Nachmanson, 'Die schriftliche Kontraktion
SPECIAL FEATURES OF BIBLICAL MANUSCRIPTS
37
contractions that sometimes occur in pre-Christian ostraca and inscriptions in representing proper names, titles of rulers, names of months, numerals, and certain formulae. Paap,78 rejecting Traube's view of a Jewish origin for the nomina sacra, attributes their origin to Jewish Christians, because 'for them the Greek word for 'God' had exactly the same value as the tetragrammaton and for that reason was entitled to a distinction in its written forms'; thus, 0s comes to be used for 0e6s. On the other hand, Schuyler Brown argues that it was and not which was used to represent the Tetragrammaton. Because then became a title common to both God and Jesus, it was altogether natural, he thinks, that 'the initial contraction of wpios was rapidly extended in one direction to and in 79 the other direction and X The extension of usage came about because Christian scribes wished to give graphic expression to the theological equation already present in the earliest apostolic preaching, in which /cupios, the name of the God of Israel, was used as a title for Jesus Christ. In other words, the four nouns which are universally accorded special treatment in the early papyri of the New Testament are not simply nomina sacra but rather nomina divina.8o
Roberts, who supposes that the use of nomina sacra originated among Christians at Jerusalem, designates them as 'the embryonic creed of the first Church.'81 In subsequent generations the system of contraction was extended to a variety of other words that carried deep theological connotations. For several centuries a certain amount of experimentation took place, involving such eccentricities as and and in the second-century British Museum Gospel.82 As late as the second half of the fourth century the scribe responsible for a fragment of i Corinthians twice wrote in the f o r m 8 s These, and other similar 'sports,'84 failed to establish themselves in general practice, and eventually conventional usage among Christian scribes throughout the Greek-speaking world fixed upon the fifteen nomina sacra,*5 mentioned earlier, as deserving special treatment.86 auf den griechischen Inschriften,' Eranos, x (1910), pp. 100-41. 78 Op. cit. (footnote 74 above), p. 124. 79 'Concerning the Origin of the Nomina sacra,' Studia papyrologica, ix (1970), p. 18. 80 Ibid., p. 19. 81 C. H. Roberts, op. cit. (footnote 74 above), p. 46. 8a H. I. Bell and T. C. Skeat, Fragments of an Unknown Gospel and Other Early Christian Papyri (London, 1935), p. 4. Cf. also Roberts's discussion of these and other eccentric nomina sacra, op. cit., pp. 39 and 83 f. 83
8
Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 1008 (p1*).
« For instances of other words sporadically contracted in manuscripts, see Kurt Aland, Repertorium der griechischen christlichen Papyri, i (Berlin and New York, 1976), pp. 420-28. 8s The question why it was these fifteen names, and only these, that came to be so regarded has not been answered satisfactorily. In any case, however, the
standardization of usage indicates 'a degree of organization, of conscious planning, and uniformity of practice among the Christian communities which we have hitherto had little reason to suspect' (T. C. Skeat, op. cit. [footnote 23 above], p. 73). 86 Occasionally an unwary scribe, misinterpreting several letters as a nomen sacrum, transcribed them erroneously; for example, ovoi ('asses') in Aristotle's History of Animals has been transcribed as avOpuiroi. See D'Arcy W. Thompson, '8ww: tvOpctiros,' Classical Quarterly, xxxix (1945), pp. 54-55, and F. W. Walbank, 'Men and Donkeys,' Classical Quarterly, xxxix (1945), p. 122. For other examples of such confusion, see I. C. Vollgraff, Studia palaeographies. (Leiden, 1871), pp. 69-77; G6rard Garitte, ' 'Terra mitium': Nomina sacra et fautes de copie,' Scriptorium, v (1951), pp. 104-5; ant* H. Sahlin, 'Zum Verstandnis von drei Stellen des Markus Evangeliums,' Biblica, xxxiii (1952), pp. 53-66.
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MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
§22. H E X A P L A R I C S I G N S
ORIGEN'S monumental edition of the Old Testament, the massive, io,ooo-page Hexapla (see Plate 30), set forth six transcriptions of the entire Old Testament in parallel columns, namely (i) the Hebrew text, (2) its transliteration into Greek letters, (3) the extremely literalistic Greek translation made in the first half of the second century A.D. by Aquila, a Jewish proselyte; (4) the freer Greek translation made in the latter part of the second century A.D. by Symmachus, an Ebionite Christian; (5) the Septuagint translation (LXX) made in the third and second centuries B.C.; and (6) the free revision of the Septuagint made in the second century A.D. by Theodotion, variously described as a Jewish proselyte (so Irenaeus), an Ebionite Christian (so Jerome), or a follower of Marcion (so Epiphanius). Besides these four Greek translations, in certain sections of the Old Testament Origen included the text of three other Greek versions, thus providing in these sections a total of nine columns. According to Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. VI. 16) one of these anonymous versions was discovered during the reign of Caracalla (A.D. 211-217) buried in an earthenware jar at Jericho.87 Employing the critical signs invented by Aristarchus and other scholars at the famed Alexandrian library, Origen marked the text of the Septuagint to show its exact relation to the Hebrew. All words and paragraphs in the Septuagint which were not represented in the Hebrew he marked with an obelus (—); all lacunae in the Greek, on the other hand, were filled in from one of the other translations (mostly from Theodotion) and marked with an asterisk (*). Two points (:) indicate the end of each textual change (see Plate 15). If something had been wrongly translated in the Septuagint, the correct rendering was inserted either by itself or behind the one marked with an obelus. This work, on which Origen spent more than fifteen years of unremitting labor, was of such gigantic dimension that it probably was never copied in its entirety. According to Eusebius, Jerome, and other Fathers, however, the last four columns also existed in a separate form known as the Tetrapla. The fifth column (the LXX) was frequently copied and circulated on its own (see Plate 21), though scribes unfortunately tended to disregard the asterisks and obeli.88 §23. S T I C H O M E T R Y AND
GOLOMETRY
FROM ancient times the average hexameter line of writing comprising sixteen syllables of about thirty-six letters, was taken as a standard of measure for 87
For modern debate concerning the identity of these three anonymous versions (called the Quinta, the Sexta, and the Septima), see Sidney Jellicoe, The Septuagint and Modern Study (Oxford, 1968), pp. 11823, and Hermann-Josef Venetz, Die Quinta des Psalteriums; ein Beitrag zur Septuaginta- und Hexaplaforschung (Hildesheim, 1974). On the discovery of manuscripts in antiquity, see Colin H. Roberts, Buried Books in Antiquity . . . A Public Lecture delivered at the Library
Association on 25 October 1962 (Arundell Esdaile Memorial Lecture, 1962; [London,] 1963). 88 The most extensive collection of Hexaplaric materials is in Frederick Field, Origenis Hexaplorum quae supersunt. . .fragmenta, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1867-75; re~ printed, Hildesheim, 1964). The most important addition to Field's collection is the recently published palimpsest in the Ambrosian Library at Milan (see Plate 30). For bibliography on the Hexapla, see S. P.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF BIBLICAL MANUSCRIPTS
39
89
literary works. The number of ortxoi served (a) to show the length of a treatise or book, (b) to provide a standard for payment to the scribe and the pricing of the book, (c) to guard against later interpolations and excisions, and (d) to permit, through the notation in the margin of the <mxoi by fifties, the general location of citations. Manuscripts of both the Old Testament90 and the New Testament91 occasionally provide stichometric information—though in some cases the figures given for the same book vary widely. The earliest Biblical manuscript that contains such notation is the Chester Beatty Papyrus of the Pauline Epistles (p 46 ). At the end of the Epistle to the Romans, the scribe indicates 1000 stichoi (see Plate 6); at the end of Hebrews (which in this manuscript follows Romans), 700; Ephesians, 316; Galatians, 375; and Philippians, 225 (or 222). The numbers for the other
cism of the New Testament, 4th ed., i (London, 1894), pp. 381-3. 95 Op. cit., p. 61. 96 Cf. Albert Debrunner, 'Grundsatzliches iiber Kolometrie im Neuen Testament,' Theologische Blatter, v (1926), pp. 231-3; Roland Schiitz, 'Die Bedeutung der Kolometrie fur das Neue Testament,' %eitschrift fur die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, xxi (1922), pp. 161-84; James A. Kleist, 'Colometry and the New Testament,' Classical Bulletin, iv (1928), pp. 26 f.; and Paul Gachter, 'Codex D and Codex A,' Journal of Theological Studies, xxxv (1934), pp. 248-66. 97 In codex Vaticanus (B) and codex Sinaiticus (K) of the fourth century seven books are copied colometrically, namely Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the Song of Songs, Job, Wisdom of Solomon, and Ecclesiasticus. 98 Edited by J. W. B. Barns and G. D. Kilpatrick, Proceedings of the British Academy, xliii (1957), pp. 227 f.
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MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
Similarly all the books of the New Testament, except the Book of Revelation, were sometimes written in sense-lines. The oldest New Testament manuscript with the text arranged colometrically is codex Bezae (D; see Plate 19). It is not known when or by whom the colometric arrangement of the text was introduced into the Gospels, but the Acts and the Epistles were divided into sense-lines by a scholar named Euthalius (or Evagrius), who lived, it is thought, in the fourth century (see §27). §24.
S U P E R S C R I P T I O N S AND S U B S C R I P T I O N S
IN the oldest manuscripts of the Greek Bible the titles of the several books tend to be short and simple; for example, In later copies these titles became longer and more complex; for example, (Rahlfs 129), (Gregory-Aland 209 and many others), and, eventually, ('The Revelation of the all-glorious Evangelist, bosom friend [of Jesus], virgin, beloved to Christ, John the theologian, son of Salome and Zebedee, but adopted son of Mary the Mother of God, and Son of Thunder'; Gregory-Aland 1775, written A.D. 1847). The subscriptions ( ), appended to the end of the books, were originally (like the titles) brief and simple. In the course of time these too became more elaborate, and often included traditional information (or misinformation!) regarding the place at which the book was written, and sometimes the name of the amanuensis.' It is probable that the subscriptions attached to the Pauline Epistles (and retained in the King James Version) are the work of Euthalius (see §2 7). Six of these subscriptions are false or improbable; that is, they are either absolutely contradicted by the contents of the Epistle (i Cor., Gal., i Tim.) or are difficult to be reconciled with them (i and 2 Thess., Titus).100 §25.
C H A P T E R D I V I S I O N S AND H E A D I N G S
IN order to assist readers, at an early period the books of the Greek Bible were divided into chapters. In Septuagint manuscripts the variety of such systems of division—which, according to Swete, 'seem to be nearly as numerous as the capitulated copies of the LXX'101—suggests that they were drawn up independently by a number of different scribes or editors. In New Testament manuscripts four ancient systems of division have been preserved. The oldest system which is known to us is that contained in codex Vati-
99 For the Greek text of these subscriptions, with identification of manuscript variations, see B. M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (London, 1971), at the close of each Epistle.
I0 ° For a discussion, see chap. 15 of William Paley's Horae Paulinae (London, 1790). I01 H. B. Swete, op. cit. (footnote 90 above), p. 354.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF BIBLICAL MANUSCRIPTS
41
canus.102 Of unknown origin, the division into sections was made with reference to breaks in the sense. There are 170 in Matthew, 62 in Mark, 152 in Luke, 80 in John. The chapters in the several Pauline Epistles are numbered continuously as though the Epistles were regarded as comprising one book. This circumstance enables us to say something about the order of the Epistles in a manuscript, now lost, from which the capitulation was copied, for the present arrangement in codex Vaticanus has suffered some dislocation. Sections i to 58 cover regularly Romans, i and 2 Corinthians, and Galatians; but Ephesians, instead of beginning with 59, begins with 70, and then there is no further break in sequence until 93, which stands near the end of 2 Thessalonians, after which follows the Epistle to the Hebrews, beginning with 59 and going on to 64 in 9:11, after which the manuscript is defective (from 9:14 onward). Obviously an ancestor of B contained the Epistle to the Hebrews between Galatians and Ephesians. Next in antiquity to the sections in Vaticanus, if, indeed, not equally ancient, are the The former are chapter divisions, and the latter are summary headings briefly describing the contents (see Plates 23, 29, 3i> 35)- These divisions, of which there are 68 in Matthew, 48 in Mark, 83 in Luke, and 18 in John, are not found in Vaticanus and Sinaiticus, but are present in Alexandrinus (see Plate 18), so that their use in the fifth century is quite certain. For the New Testament a standardized list of rtrXot occurs in many manuscripts;103 for the Old Testament, besides the previously mentioned diversity of systems of chapter divisions, there is a great diversity of titles which await further investigation.104 The division of the Bible into chapters, which, with small modification, are still in use today, was introduced into the Latin Bible by Stephen Langton at the beginning of the thirteenth century while a lecturer at the University of Paris (Langton, who died Archbishop of Canterbury in 1228, is famous in history for wresting the Magna Carta from King John). Verse division in the Hebrew Bible by is witnessed to as early as the Mishnah (Megillah iv.4). Numbered verses (for a Hebrew concordance to the Masoretic text) were first worked out by Rabbi Isaac Nathan in about i44o.IOS The current verse division in the New Testament is due to Robert Stephanus (Estienne),106 who in 1551 published at Geneva a Greek and
IOJ See H. K. McArthur, 'The Earliest Divisions of the Gospels,' Studio Evangelica, iii, Part 2, ed. by F. L. Gross (Texte und Untersuchungen, Ixxxviii; Berlin, 1964), pp. 266-72. 10 * See Hermann von Soden, Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments in Hirer dltesten erreichbaren Textgestalt, I, i (Berlin, 1902), pp. 405-11 (the Gospels), 449-57 (Acts), 457-60 (Catholic Epistles), and 462-69 (Pauline Epistles). Cf. also Paul Gachter, 'Zur Textabteilung von Evangelienhandschriften,' Biblica, xv 0934). PP- S01'20104 See, besides Swete, op. cit. (footnote 90 above), pp. 351-56, Robert Devreesse, Introduction a I*etude des manuscrits grecs (Paris, 1954), pp. 139-41.
l °s See G. F. Moore, 'The Vulgate Chapters and Numbered Verses in the Hebrew Bible,' Journal of Biblical Literature, xii (1893), pp. 73-8. In early printed Hebrew Bibles every fifth verse (i, 5, 10, etc.) is marked by its Hebrew numeral. 106 According to Stephanus's son, his father made the divisions into verse inter equitandum on a journey from Paris to Lyons. Although some have understood this to mean 'on horseback' (and have explained inappropriate verse-divisions as originating when the horse bumped his pen into the wrong place!), the inference most natural and best supported by the evidence is that the task was accomplished while resting at inns along the road.
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MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
Latin edition of the New Testament with the text of the chapters divided into separate verses.107 The first Bible in English to contain verse numbers was the Geneva Version, translated by William Whittingham and others in 1560. (For the other two ancient systems of divisions in New Testament manuscripts, see §26 and §27.) §26.
THE E U S E B I A N
CANON TABLES
IT is to Eusebius of Caesarea that we owe an important innovation introduced into manuscripts of the Gospels. This was a device for showing which passages in each Gospel are similar to passages in other Gospels.108 Taking over the system (usually attributed to Ammonius of Alexandria) of dividing the text of the Gospels into numbered sections109 (355 in Matthew, 233 in Mark, 342 in Luke, and 232 in John), Eusebius drew up ten tables of canons , presenting in Canon I the references by numerals to more or less parallel passages found in all four Gospels; in Canon II, passages common to Matthew, Mark, and Luke; in Canon III, passages common to Matthew, Luke, and John; and so on for almost all possible combinations of Gospels (not, however, Mark, Luke, and John; or Mark and John). The final table gives references to matter peculiar to each Gospel alone. Many manuscripts of the Gospels, not only in Greek, but also in Latin, Syriac, Coptic, Gothic, Armenian, and Georgian, include at the beginning the ten Canon Tables (often artistically ornamented with vines, leaves, flowers, birds, etc.110) along with Eusebius's Epistle to Carpianus, in which the system is explained to the user.111 In later centuries a simplification was introduced into some manuscripts. Using information from the Canon Tables, scribes copied at the bottom of each page the references to the appropriate parallels in other Gospels (see Plate 36). §27.
THE E U T H A L I A N A P P A R A T U S
GREEK manuscripts of the Book of Acts and of the Epistles sometimes contain a collection of editorial materials that circulated under the name of Euthalius (or Evagrius), now generally dated to the middle of the fourth century. These con*°7 For a list of differences in verse-division among about fifty editions of the Greek New Testament, see Ezra Abbot's Latin excursus in Caspar Ren6 Gregory's Prolegomena volume (Leipzig, 1894) to C. von TischendorPs Novum Testamentum Graece, 8th ed. maior, pp. 167-82, translated into English in Abbot's posthumously published volume entitled, The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel and Other Critical Essays (Boston, 1888), pp. 464-77. For information about verse-division in versions of the Bible, see W. Wright in John Kitto, A Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, 3rd ed., iii (Philadelphia, 1866), pp. 1066-70; reprinted with minor changes in John McClintock and James Strong, Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature, x (New York, 1881), pp. 756-62. 108 Eusebius's intention went beyond that of pro-
viding a harmony of the Gospels, for he sometimes linked passages which could not conceivably be identical but which express some common concept or activity (that is, his system represented a primitive form of marginal references); for the distinction, see H. K. McArthur, 'The Eusebian Sections and Canons,' Catholic Biblical Quarterly, xxvii (1965), pp. 250-56. 109 These sections are very much shorter than the chapter divisions described above in section §25. 110 See Carl Nordenfalk, Die spdtantiken Kanontafeln; Kuntsgeschichtliche Studien iiber die Eusebianische EvangelienKonkordanz in die vier ersten Jahrhunderten ihrer Geschichte, 2 vols. (Goteborg, 1938). 111 For an English translation of the Epistle, see H. H. Oliver in Novum Testamentum, iii (1959), pp. 138-45.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF BIBLICAL MANUSCRIPTS
43
sist of prologues, lists of quotations from other parts of the Bible, tables of lections, and lists of chapters, with summary headings of their contents.112 Attached to the Euthalian prologue to the Pauline Epistles is a 'Martyrium Pauli,' which has been thought to date from 396 (F. C. Conybeare) or from 458 (L. A. Zacagni) or 670 (H. von Soden); but the reasons for identifying the author of this text with that of the rest of the Euthalian material now seem insufficient.'3 Several manuscripts contain a variety of other miscellaneous 'Helps for the Reader.'4 §28.
HYPOTHESES
THE hypothesis is a prologue or brief introduction to a book, supplying the reader with certain information concerning the author, the contents, and the character of the work. In some manuscripts the hypotheses for the Gospels are ascribed to Eusebius, but more often they are anonymous. For the Acts and the Epistles a variety of prologues and prefatory materials occur in minuscule manuscripts (see Plate 44). Some are anonymous; others are attributed to Chrysostom, to Theodoret, and to Euthalius.115 §29.
LECTIONARY EQUIPMENT
A lectionary is a book, or a list, of Scripture lessons to be read in divine services. The practice of assigning particular portions of the Bible to particular days began, it seems, as early as the fourth century.'6 Originally the beginning and e n d i n g o f each pericope were noted in the margin of the manuscript (see Plates 32 and 43), or even within the text itself (see Plates 23, 24, and 29). Later the Scripture passages were collected into service books, known as the Prophetologion (see Plate 34), the Evangelarium or Gospel Lectionary (see Plates 33 and 38), and the Apostolos (see Plate 39), depending on the nature of the Biblical passages.'7 112
The Euthalian materials were edited by L. A. Zacagni, Collectanea Monumentorum Veteris Ecclesiae Graecae et Latinae, i (Rome, 1698), pp. 401-708, most of which were reprinted in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, Ixxxv, cols. 619-790. Among the considerable amount of secondary literature on Euthalius may be mentioned J. Armitage Robinson, Euthaliana (Cambridge, 1895); E. von Dobschiitz, 'Euthaliusstudien,' Zjsitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte, xxix (1899), pp. 107-54; H. von Soden, op. cit. (footnote 103 above), I. i (1902), pp. 637-82; C. H. Turner in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, extra vol. (1904), pp. 524-9; G. Bardy in Dictionnaire de la Bible, Supplement, ii (1934), cols. 1215-18; and the dissertation mentioned in the following footnote. '* Cf. Louis Charles Willard, 'A Critical Study of the Euthalian Apparatus,' Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1970. '« For these, see Willard's dissertation, pp. 98-126. 115 For further information concerning hypotheses, see H. von Soden, op. cit. (footnote 103 above), I.i, pp. 314 ff.
116 For a brief discussion of the development of the Greek lectionary system, see B. M. Metzger, The Saturday and Sunday Lessons from Luke in the Greek Gospel Lectionary (Chicago, 1944), pp. i i ff. '* On the structure of each of three kinds of service books, see, respectively, Carsten Hoeg and Gunther Zuntz, 'Remarks on the Prophetologion,' Quantulacumque; Studies Presented to Kirsopp Lake . . ., ed. by Robert P. Casey, et al. (London, 1937), pp. 189-226; B. M. Metzger, 'Greek Lectionaries and a Critical Edition of the Greek New Testament,' Die alien Ubersetzungen des Neuen Testaments, die Kirchenvaterzitate und Lektionare, ed. by Kurt Aland (Berlin and New York, 1 97'2)> PP- 479-97; and Klaus Junack, 'Zu den griechischen Lektionaren und ihrer Uberlieferung der katholischen Briefe,' ibid., pp. 497-591- For a convenient guide to the passages assigned to be read throughout the ecclesiastical year, see Irmgard M. de Vries, 'The Epistles, Gospels and Tones of the Liturgical Year,' Eastern Churches Quarterly, x (1953-54), pp. 41-9; 85-95; 137-49; I92'5! also published separately as Reprint No. 3 'Eastern Churches Quarterly' (Antwerp, n.d.).
44
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
Greek Gospel lectionaries have two main parts, the synaxarion and the menologion. Each supplies appointed lessons for a year, but the two are organized on different calendars. The synaxarion follows the movable, ecclesiastical calendar, beginning and ending with the variable date for Easter. About two out of five synaxaria present lessons for every day of the year; the rest present lessons for Saturdays and Sundays, except for the period between Easter and Pentecost, when daily lessons are provided by almost all Greek lectionaries (for information concerning the menologion, see Plate 38). In lectionary manuscripts the wording of the Scripture text at the beginning and, more rarely, at the end of the lection very frequently has been slightly altered in order to provide a more intelligible commencement or conclusion. For example, aur6s of the Scripture text might be replaced with the name of the person to whom it referred. Likewise, the reading was usually prefaced with 3 brief phrase, called an incipit; in the Gospels this was commonly (see Plates 33 and 38), in the Epistles, (see Plate 39). §30. N E U M E S NEUMES are Byzantine musical notes which assisted the avayvaxTTw (reader) in chanting or cantillating the Scripture lesson. Their form is that of hooks, dots, and oblique strokes (see Plates 24, 31, 34, 39), and they are usually written with red (or green) ink above the words to be sung. The most ancient system of neumes— that contained in older lectionaries of the ninth to twelfth centuries—is thought by Devreesse to go back to the first centuries of Christianity.119 Three other systems of notation ekphonetique, as it is called,120 were developed during the Byzantine period, and were applied to the text in various ecclesiastical books.'1 One such liturgical book in the Eastern Church is the Oktoechos , 'book of eight tones'; also called Parakletike), which contains the variable parts of the service from the first Sunday after Pentecost till the tenth Sunday before Easter. Since these variables recur every eight weeks in the same order, only eight sets of tones (OKTCO foot), °ne f°r each week, are provided (see the upper writing in Plate 30)§31. M I N I A T U R E S
IN antiquity deluxe editions of the Greek and Latin classics were sometimes adorned with pictures (called miniatures because they often were colored with 118
For five other, less frequently used incipits in Greek Gospel lectionaries, see footnote 153. 119 Robert Devreesse, Introduction a I'etude des manuscrits grecs (Paris, 1954), pp. iQ7f. '° Cf. J.-B. Thibaut, Monuments de la Notation Ekphonitique et Hagiopolite de I'Eglise Grecque: Expose documentaire des manuscrits de Jerusalem, du Mt. Sinai et de I'Athos conserve's <J la Bibliothique Imperiale de SaintPitersbourg (St. Petersburg, 1913); Carsten Hoeg, La
notation ekphonitique (Copenhagen, 1935); H. J. W. Tillyard, Handbook of the Middle Byzantine Musical Notation (Copenhagen, 1935); Oliver Strunk, Specimina notationum antiquiorum, folia selecta ex variis codicibus saec. X, XI et XIIphototypice depicta, 2 vols. (Copenhagen, 1966); and I. D. Petresco, £tudes depaleographie musicale byzantine (Bucharest, 1967). On tones see also de Vries, op. cit. (footnote 117 above). 121 For further information concerning this highly
SPECIAL FEATURES OF BIBLICAL MANUSCRIPTS
45
minium, or red lead). In the course of time these were developed into rather elaborate cycles of illustrations following the narrative in the text.122 It is not strange that eventually Christian scribes began to illustrate copies of books of the Bible, making use of patterns, scenes, and figures current among Hellenistic and Roman artists. In other words, early Christian book illumination was not a totally new branch of art, but from the start rested upon classical traditions. Christian artists adopted and adapted not only the prevailing iconographic style, but also, when this was possible, compositional schemes as well.'3 Among noteworthy illuminated manuscripts of the Septuagint is the ill-fated Cotton Genesis dating from the fifth or sixth century.124 Although only charred fragments of this manuscript survived the disastrous fire in the Cotton Library in 1751, these are sufficient to indicate the superior abilities of the artist who painted the 330 or so miniatures originally contained in the manuscript. Slightly later in date than the Cotton Genesis, the miniatures in the Vienna Genesis preserve that mode of the classical style which relates to impressionism. The illustrator also enriched the extensive Joseph cycle of miniatures with extraneous elements drawn from Jewish legends (see Plate 2o).I2S In the case of the Psalms,126 instead of cycles illustrating continuous narrative, the imagination of the artist moved from one kind of scene to another (see Plate 27). The earliest New Testament codices that contain miniatures are two uncial manuscripts of the sixth century, codex Rossanensis (2)127 and codex Sinopensis specialized field, see Devreesse, op. cit.; E. Wellesz, A History of Byzantine Music and Hymnography, and ed. (Oxford. 1961); Constantine Floros, Universale Neumenkunde, 3 vols. (Kassel-Wilhelmshohe, 1970); and Oliver Strunk, Essays on Music in the Byzantine World (New York, 1977). 122 For general discussions of manuscript illumination, see David Diringer, The Illuminated Book, its History and Production (New York, 1958), and P. D'Ancona and E. Aeschlimann, The Art of Illumination; an Anthology of Manuscripts from the Sixth to the Sixteenth Century (New York, 1969). For more technical discussions, see Kurt Weitzmann, Ancient Book Illumination (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1959); idem, Illustrations in Roll and Codex; a Study of the Origin and Method of Text Illustration (Princeton, 1947; and ed., 1970); and idem, 'The Study of Byzantine Book Illumination, Past, Present, and Future,' in The Place of Book Illumination in Byzantine Art, by K. Weitzmann, W. C. Loerke, and H. Buchthal (Princeton, 1975), pp. 1-60. '* See the several studies by K. Weitzmann in Studies in Classical and Byzantine Manuscript Illumination, ed. by H. L. Kessler (Chicago, 1971), esp. (for the Septuagint), pp. 45-75. '* J. J. Tikkanen, 'Die Genesismosaiken von S. Marco in Venedig und ihr Verhaltnis zu den Miniaturen der Cottonbibel,' Ada Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae, xvii (Helsinki, 1889), pp. 99 ff., and K. Weitzmann, 'Observations on the Cotton Genesis Fragments,' Late Classical and Mediaeval Studies in Honor of A. M. Friend, Jr. (Princeton, 1955), pp. 112 ff. 's With reference to these two illustrated copies of
Genesis, Gervase Mathew makes the point that, though they are 'essentially religious art, there is nothing to suggest that the artists were primarily religious. It is clear that they worked in groups; it has been calculated by stylistic analysis that either six. seven or eight painters collaborated on the Vienna Genesis. But it is only fantasy that they may have been monks. It is far more likely that they were the staff of a large workshop that produced paintings on secular or religious subjects to order' (Byzantine Aesthetics [London, 1963], p. 84). For a discussion of Palaeologan art in fifteen Greek manuscripts, see Hugo Buchthal and Hans Belting, Patronage in Thirteen-Century Constantinople; an Atelier of Early Byzantine Book Illumination and Calligraphy (Dumbarton Oaks Studies, xvi; Washington, 1978). 126 Cf. Ernest T. DeWald, The Illustrations in the Manuscripts of the Septuagint; vol. iii, Psalms and 'Odes, Part i (Princeton, 1941); Part a (1942). 127 See A. Haseloff, Codex Purpureus Rossanensis (Berlin, 1898), and A. Mufioz, // codice purpureo di Rossano (Rome, 1907). According to Wm. C. Loerke, the miniatures of the trial of Christ are copies of monumental composition in Jerusalem of about the mid-fifth century, perhaps from the Domus Pilati, a locum sanctum which recreated for the Christian pilgrim the actual courtroom in which the trial was believed to have taken place ('The Miniatures of the Trial in the Rossano Gospels,' Art Bulletin, xliii [1961], pp. 171-95). For a representation of the scene of Christ before Pilate, see Plate VH in Metzger's The Text of the New Testament.
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
46 8
(O).' The former, which contains Matthew and Mark (up to 14:14) and is written on purple parchment with silver lettering (the first three lines of each Gospel are in gold), is noteworthy for a collection of seventeen pictures at the beginning of the volume. These represent scenes from the close of the earthly ministry of Christ, beginning with the raising of Lazarus and ending with the scene of Christ and his accusers before Pilate. Codex Sinopensis comprises forty-three leaves of Matthew, written in letters of gold on purple parchment, with five pictures illustrating the Gospel text. Each of the New Testament scenes is flanked by two Old Testament personages and texts. For example, the picture of Herodias and the decapitation of John the Baptist (Matt. 14:6-12) has on its left the bust of Moses with the text of Gen. 9:6 ('Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed'), and on its right the bust of David with the text of Psalm 116:15 [115:6 LXX] ('Precious in the sight of the Lord is the death of his saints'). Portraits of the Evangelists are of two varieties: (a) those in which the figures are standing, and (b) those in which they are seated, while writing or meditating or teaching and making gestures. According to A. M. Friend, Jr.,'9 because the architectural backgrounds that often appear behind the seated Evangelists embody details of the classical theater's scenaefrons, it is probable that the antecedents of the seated Evangelist portraits were famous statues of poets and philosophers that often formed part of the decoration of the Roman theater. §32.
GLOSSES, L E X I C A , O N O M A S T I C A ,
AND C O M M E N T A R I E S
A gloss, in the technical sense used here, is a marginal note employed for explanation or illustration. The use of marginal notes can be traced to classical times when they were employed to explain for Greek students the meaning of obsolete, dialectal, or foreign words, especially such as occurred in the Homeric poems. Subsequently these notes were collected and issued in the form of a kind of lexicon for a given author. It was Aristophanes of Byzantium who, in his important work entitled raised glossography to the level of lexicography.130 Thereafter significant advances in Greek lexicography were made by Hesychius of Alexandria (v century) in his by Photius (ix century) inhis , a n d i n t h e anonymous encyclopedia called t h e Su tury). 128 See H. Omont, 'Notice sur un tres ancien manuscrit grec de 1'Evangile de S. Matthieu en onciales d'or sur parchemin pourp6 et ornfi de miniatures, consent & la Bibliotheque Nationale,' Notices et Extracts des manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Nationale, xxxvi (1900), pp. 599-675; idem, Fac-similes des miniatures des plus anciens manuscrits grecs de la Bibliotheque Nationale du VI* au XI' siecle (Paris, 1902), pp. i ff. For reproductions of the miniatures in color, see Omont in Monuments et Mimoires (Fondation Eugene Piot), vii (1901), pp. 175-185, and Plates XVI-XIX. '» 'The Portraits of the Evangelists in Greek and Latin Manuscripts,' Art Studies, v (1927), pp. 115-47,
and vii (1929), pp. 3-29. See also U. Nilgen, 'Evangelisten,' in E. Kirschbaum's Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie, i (Rome, Freiburg, Basel, Vienna, 1968), cols. 696-713, and R. P. Bergman, 'Portraits of the Evangelists in Greek Manuscripts,' Illuminated Greek Manuscripts from American Collections, ed. by Gary Vikan (Princeton, 1973), pp. 44~49A large number of representations of the Evangelists may now be conveniently found in the monumental 01 QTjffavpol rou 'Aylov 'Qpovs. ElKomypaifcripkva X«p6ypa.a, vols. i and ii (Athens 1973, 1975). '3° See J. E. Sandys, A History of Classical Scholarship: from the Sixth Century B. C. to the End of the Middle Ages,
SPECIAL FEATURES OF BIBLICAL MANUSCRIPTS
47
In the case of the transmission of the text of the Greek Bible there was a similar development from random glosses standing in the margins of manuscripts (see Plate 32) to the collection of such notes in alphabetic sequence. Fruits of such labors were subsequently added to Hesychius's as a Biblical supplement to his classical Greek lexicon. In early Byzantine times Bible lexica, resting in part on the work of Hesychius and others, were drawn up and adapted for use in connection with specific parts of the Scriptures. There were, for example, a ,131 a for each of the Gospels, for Acts (see below), and for other Biblical books.132 Onomastica are special collections of glosses explaining the meaning of the names of persons and places. The preponderance of Semitic names in the Old and New Testaments presented to Greek readers abundant subject matter for such inquiry. In common with all discussions in antiquity concerning the etymology of words—discussions which in the light of modern comparative linguistics are frequently na'ive and/or absurd133—Biblical onomastica contain a high percentage of doubtful and/or erroneous information. Onomastic traditions concerning names in the Septuagint were developed by Philo, carried forward by Origen and Eusebius, and translated into Latin by Jerome. Eventually such materials were classified, drawn up in tabular form, and included in manuscripts of the Bible. In minuscule manuscripts one now and then finds prefixed to each of the Gospels, or to the Book of Revelation, a list of the proper names contained in that book, each name being supplied with its supposed significance. As a sample, in addition to the lists included by Wutz in his magisterial monograph,134 the following transcription of the first part of the onomasticon prefixed to the Gospel of Matthew in the twelfth-century codex 1315 will give some indication of this kind of 'Helps for Readers.'
In other lists, instead of an alphabetic order135 the sequence is in accord with the order in which the words appear in the Scripture text. The following is the 2nd ed., i (Cambridge, 1908), p. 129, and Goetz, 'Glossographie,' Pauly-Wissowa-Kroll, Real-Encyclopddie der dassischen Altertumswissenschqft, vii, I (1910), cols. 1433-66. 131 Edited by Jacob Benediktsson in Classica et Mediaevalia, i (1938), pp. 243-80. uz For what appears to be an early Greek-Latin lexicon on the Apostle Paul, see Alfons Wouters, 'A Greek Grammar and a Graeco-Latin Lexicon on St. Paul (Rom., 2 Cor., Gal., Eph.): A Note on E. A. Lowe C.L.A. Supplement No. 1683,' Scriptorium, xxxi 0977)> PP- 240-2.
'« For examples, see William Dudley Woodhead, Etymologizing in Greek Literature from Homer to Philo Judaeus, Ph.D. diss., University of Toronto, 1928. *3< Franz Wutz, Onomastica sacra; Untersuchungen z.um Liber interpretations nominum Hebraicorum des hi. Hieronymus (Texte und Untersuchungen, xli; Leipzig, 1914, 1915)'3S It will be observed from the list given above that the alphabetizing has been imperfectly done; for the history of the development of the custom of alphabetizing, see Daly's monograph mentioned above in footnote 16.
48
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
opening section of the glossary prefixed to the Acts of the Apostles in codex 1315, in which words and expressions are defined briefly (chapter and verse numbers have been supplied):
The following are the first six or seven items in' the glossary prefixed to the Epistles in the same manuscript:
[Rom. i: i] [Rom. i: 9] [Rom. i: 9] [Rom. i: 11] [Rom. 1:20] [Rom. 1:30] [Rom. i'3'l In addition to such lexicographic glosses there also developed in ever fuller detail hermeneutic traditions presented in the form of scholia (
'J6 See G. Heinrici, 'Scholia,' The New Schaff-Her&g Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, x (1911), pp. 269-71, and A. Gudeman, 'Scholien,' Pauly-Wissowa-Kroll, Real-Encyclopddie der klassischen Alterturnswissenschaft, ate Reihe, iii (1921), cols. 625-705. '» Cf. Robert Devreesse, 'Chaines, exeg6tiques grecques,' Dictionnaire de la Bible, Supplement i (Paris, 1928), cols. 1084-1233; Karl Staab, Pauluskommentare
aus der griechischen Kirche, aus Katenenhandschriften gesammelt und herausgegeben (Miinster, 1933); and R. Devreesse, 'Catenae,' Twentieth Century Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, i (Grand Rapids, 1955), pp. 217 f. IJ * For a classified list of commentary-codices of the New Testament, see H. von Soden, op. cit. (footnote 103 above), i, pp. 249-89; 525-637; 682-704; see especially the statistical summary, pp. 289-92.
APPENDIX I
How to Estimate the Date of a Greek Manuscript IN some manuscripts we find at the close a colophon (see §13) in which, the scribe mentions the date when the work of copying was completed. The year is usually given according to the Mundane or Adamic era.139 This was reckoned from September i, 5509 B.C., which was believed to be the date of the creation of the world. In many cases the day of the month and sometimes the day of the week and even the hour of the day are also noted, and often the year of the current indiction is included (see Plates 31 and 35).I4° Since most manuscripts, however, lack such chronological information, their approximate age must be determined on the basis of considerations of the style of the script. Now, the evolution of handwriting is a gradual process, and one form gives way to another almost imperceptibly. A considerable lapse of time is generally required to produce significant changes in the shapes of the letters and the general appearance of the script.141 It is understandable that one finds quite marked differences between the average hand of, say, A.D. 900 and that of 1300. For one thing, as time went on there was a very great increase in the number and kinds of ligatures (see Figs. 5 and 7). For another, what can be described only as a general decline in the minuscule hand occurred as scribes apparently devoted less care to their handiwork and preferred rapid to careful copying. Considerable diversity developed in handwriting, and in some cases the writing is irregular with letters that vary considerably in size. At the same time, the beginning of certain features or practices can be identified. For example, infralinear writing appeared as early as A.D. 917, and it became common about the middle of the tenth century; however, the letters were sometimes still written on the line as late as 975.142 Taking account of the shape of breathing marks provides broad parameters in dating minuscule Greek manuscripts. According to a rule formulated by Gardthausen,143 square breathing marks occur in codices written before the year 1000, whereas only round breathings are found after 1300. During the period between these two dates both kinds of breathings were used. J 3» The custom of dating events from the year in which Jesus Christ was supposed to have been born was introduced by Hippolytus of Rome, who flourished in the third century. This system, however, was not used by Byzantine scribes for the dating of manuscripts until the fourteenth century, and even then it was generally accompanied by the Anno Mundi reckoning. **' An indiction is a cycle or period of fifteen years. The Constantinian system of indictions was inaugurated by Constantine, the series of indictions beginning
on September i, 312. For tables of the indictions, see V. Gardthausen, op. cit. (footnote a above), ii, pp. 487-97. l 1 * An exception to this statement is the appearance of the minuscule hand adopted for the writing of books at the beginning of the ninth century (see §16). ' So W. H. P. Hatch, Facsimiles and Descriptions of Minuscule Manuscripts of the New Testament (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1951)9 P- 2O) n - l&'« Op. cit. (footnote 2), ii, pp. 386-8.
49
50
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
Another feature in the evolution of minuscule script is the intrusion, in ever greater numbers, of uncial forms of certain letters (notably r, A, e, H, 9, N, and c), replacing the corresponding minuscule forms. By collecting statistics on the proportion of minuscule to uncial forms of €, r], A, and TT in 111 dated New Testament manuscripts, Colwell and others144 have been able to formulate certain generalizations of usage that are helpful in attempting to ascertain the approximate date of undated manuscripts. The upshot of the preceding discussion of the development of the minuscule hand is that, though certain landmarks can be discerned, many scholars confess that it remains extremely difficult, if not impossible, to be confident in determining within narrow limits the date of a minuscule manuscript between 1050 and i35O.I4S Furthermore, whether the manuscript be uncial or minuscule two considerations must be kept in mind, (a) Sometimes a scribe took an earlier hand as his model, and consequently his work presents an archaic appearance that is not characteristic of his time.146 (b) Since the style of a person's handwriting may remain more or less constant throughout life, it is unrealistic to seek to fix upon a date narrower than a fifty-year spread.147 In spite of the preceding caveats it still remains useful to attempt to date the handwriting of an undated manuscript by comparing it with dated manuscripts. Happily a considerable number of the latter have been identified and facsimile specimens-of many have been made available. For a chronological list of several hundred dated Greek manuscripts, extending from about A.D. 512 to 1593, see Devreesse's Introduction,146 and for reproductions of selected folios of dated manuscripts, see the collections published by the Lakes, by Turyn, and by others mentioned in the Bibliography (pp. 141 ff. below). '«« E. C. Colwell, 'Some Criteria for Dating Byzantine New Testament Manuscripts,' an Appendix in The Four Gospels of Karahissar, i, History and Text (Chicago, 1936), pp. 225-41; reprinted in Colwell, Studies in Methodology in Textual Criticism oj the New Testament (Leiden and Grand Rapids, 1969), pp. 125-41. See also E. Folieri, 'La reintroduzione di lettere semionciali nei piu antichi manoscritti greci in minuscola,' Bollettino deWArchivio Paleografico Italiano, III, i (1962), pp. 15-36, who examines specimen folios of 56 manuscripts dated between 835 and 975, and R. Valentini, 'La reintroduzione dell'onciale e la datazione dei manoscritti greci in minuscola,' Scritti in onore di fCar/o Diano (Bologna, 1975), pp. 455-70, who presents statistics concerning the use of various forms of B, A, H, K, and A, as well as several sigla and compendia, in 123 specimens of manuscripts included in the Lakes' album of dated minuscule manuscripts. '« Paul Maas observes that in calligraphic books the 'mixed minuscule' remains without noticeable variation from the eleventh to the fifteenth century (Griechische Palaeographie, 3te Aufl., in Alfred Gercke and Eduard Norden, Einleitung in der Altertumswissenschaft [Leipzig, 1927], pp. 28 and 80 f.). 146 On scribes who deliberately archaize the style of their handwriting, see Hunger's article cited above in footnote 50. 147 On the need to allow at least half a century lee-
way in dating manuscripts, see B. A. van Groningen's strongly worded comment: 'There is just one thing that I would like to mention because I think it is rather too often forgotten. Now my age is 70, and I write practically in the same way as when I was 20. If after 2,000 years there is a scrap of manuscript which was written by me, it could not possibly be said whether it was written in 1964 or in 1914, and I say that we must always be careful and not be too precise in our datings because you always have the difference of half a century in one man's life' (Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists, ii [1964-65], p. 16). '*8 Robert Devreesse, Introduction a I'etude des manuscrits grecs (Paris, 1954), pp. 286-320; it should be observed that Turyn's collections of dated Greek manuscripts were published subsequently. For an examination of 213 dated Greek manuscripts (only seven of which, strangely enough, were written between 1200 and 1250), see Howard C. Kee, 'Palaeography of Dated New Testament Manuscripts before 1300,' unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1951. Kee, who in general confirms Colwell's investigations (see footnote 144 above), finds slightly more conservatism in resisting the introduction of uncial letters in straight Gospel manuscripts than in lectionary manuscripts (p. 181). See also Kurt Treu, 'Die Schreiber der datierten byzantinischen Handschriften des 9. und 10. Jahrhunderts,' Beitrdge zur byzantinischen Ge-
HOW TO ESTIMATE THE DATE OF A GREEK MANUSCRIPT
51
In conclusion, whether one is estimating the age of an undated manuscript or attempting to determine if two manuscripts were written by the same scribe,149 the counsel of two eminent palaeographers, Kirsopp and Silva Lake, is appropriate: Palaeographers are divided into two schools. One dates manuscripts by the shape of individual letters, the other by the general impression of the script. In our opinion both are correct in part. The general impression is the starting-point, but this must be checked by a study of the individual letters. A combination of the two methods is perhaps the only way of deciding whether the same scribe did or did not write any two manuscripts.150
schichte im g.-ii. Jahrhundert, ed. by Vladimir Vavfinek (Prague, 1978), pp. 235-51. *«» For a list of the names of scribes, see Marie Vogel and Viktor Gardthausen, Die griechischen Schreiber des Mittelalters und der Renaissance (Leipzig, 1909; reprinted, Hildesheim, 1966), pp. I24f. Supplements to the list have been published by Ch. G. Patrinelis in 'EireTTjpis
, viii-ix (1958-59), pp. 63-124; P. Canart in Scriptorium, xvii (1963), pp. 56-82; K. A. de Meyier, ibid., xviii (1964), pp. 258-66; and B. L. Fonkitch in Vizantijskij Vremennik, xxvi (1965), pp. 266-71. ISO 'The Scribe Ephraim,' Journal of Biblical Liter alure, Ixii (1943), p. 264.
APPENDIX II
How to Collate a Greek Manuscript
AN editor can report the text of a manuscript in two ways: either the text can be reproduced in its entirety (by photography or by transcription) or it can be collated. To collate means to compare the text of the manuscript with another text, chosen as a standard,151 and to report each and every difference from the basic text. The advantages of the collation process include (a) the ease with which one can then determine the distinctive elements of the new manuscript, (b) the relatively compact form of the report of those distinctive elements, and (c) the utility of such evidence in preparing a critical apparatus of variant readings. In recording a collation one should, of course, mention the name and edition of the text chosen as the collating base. Chapter and verse numbers ought to be given with each separate item in the collation (see example on p. 116 below). The first element in each entry is the reading of the collating base, followed by a square bracket (]); the second element is the reading of the manuscript being collated. No unnecessary words should be included in the collation. For example, if the printed text reads and the manuscript r e a d s t h e collation should read simply If the manuscript lacks a word that is present in the printed text, that word is entered in the collation preceded by a minus sign. In case the word or phrase occurs more than once in the same verse, a small superscript numeral following the word or phrase will indicate which occurrence is intended; for example, — 2. If the variation involves the sequence of two or more words, the collation should read, for example, When two or more successive words differ from the collating base, they should be recorded together as one variant reading if they are grammatically or logically associated (for example, ), but should be recorded separately if they could occur independently of one another. Abbreviations, symbols, and the like in the manuscript should be read as though the scribe had spelled them fully, and they therefore need not be mentioned in the collation if this spelling agrees with that of the collating base. An exception is the nomen sacrum which can represent any of the several spellings of the Greek word for David. This contraction therefore must be recorded as a contraction, to show that it cannot be assumed to support a particular spelling. Sometimes it is 151 It has been customary to collate New Testament manuscripts against the so-called Textus Receptus (for example, against the Oxford edition of the Greek New Testament prepared by Charles Lloyd in 1825
and reprinted many times thereafter). Inasmuch as the Textus Receptus represents the later Byzantine type of text, a collation made against such a base will disclose the non-Byzantine elements of the manuscript.
52
HOW TO COLLATE A GREEK MANUSCRIPT
53
also useful to indicate whether numerals are expressed by words or by letters of the alphabet. For some purposes in collating, differences involving nw-moveable need not be recorded. If, however, there is any doubt about the wisdom of omitting information concerning such differences, they should be cited throughout the collation. If any words or letters in the manuscript being collated are uncertain or illegible, the following procedures should be observed: A letter partially legible but still somewhat doubtful should be written with a IS3 dot under it; for example, A letter that is totally illegible should be represented by a dot; for example, «rio[' -iov. When the state of preservation of a manuscript makes complete verification of a reading impossible (for example, TIIJ in Plate 5), it should be marked vid (standing for the Latin videtur, 'it seems') to indicate apparent support. When a reading in a manuscript has been corrected, both readings should be recorded; for example, ] omitted by first hand and added in margin corrected to In collating Greek lectionary manuscripts one should indicate the day for which the lection is appointed to be read. Furthermore, the conventional introductory phrase (incipit) is ordinarily represented in a collation by a roman numeral,153 followed by whatever modification in the Scriptural wording has taken place. For example, the Textus Receptus of Matt. 11:2 reads i whereas certain lectionaries begin the lection for the second day of the fourth week after Easter as follows: The collation of the beginning of this lection, therefore, should be represented as follows: Matt. 11:2 Inc I (followed by the siglum of the lectionary that is being collated).
152 On the difficulty of deciding when it is appropriate to use a dot under a letter, and what the user of the collation mayi ,be ^expected r ., , . . _ to understand . ,. concerniU mg the degree of (un)certamty off the reading, see the discussion by Herbert C. Youtie, 'Text and Context in Transcribing Papyri,' Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studits, vii (1966), pp. 251-8, reprinted in his Scriptiunculae, i (Amsterdam, 1973), pp. 25-32. ' The six incipits customarily found in Greek Gospel lections are as follows:
Inc I — Inc n TInc T T111= T Inc IV=
Inc V = Inc VI =
APPENDIX III
Statistics Relating to the Manuscripts of the Greek New Testament IN addition to the brief comment in the text concerning the relative numbers of uncial and minuscule manuscripts of the Greek New Testament (§16), the following statistics provide more precise details. As generally reckoned today,rs4 there are four categories of New Testament manuscripts: papyri, uncial manuscripts, minuscule manuscripts, and lectionaries. Statistics concerning each of these categories (as of 1976) are as follows :ISS Manuscripts Catalogued Papyri p1-?88 Uncial MSS 01-0274 Minuscule MSS 1-2795 Lectionaries /I-/22OQ
Uncial Script 88 274
totals
Minuscule Script
245
2795 1964
607
4759
Total number of N.T. lectionaries: 2209 Total number of N.T. manuscripts: 5366
A manuscript that contains the entire Bible was sometimes called a pandect (iravdeKTys). None have survived intact in Greek, though at one time the uncial manuscripts X A B C were complete in both Testaments. Today the only uncial manuscript that contains all the books of the New Testament is codex Sinaiticus (Plate 14). Of the total number of minuscule manuscripts only 34 are complete and without lacunae for the entire New Testament; a list of these by century indicates that 14 belong to the fourteenth century. (In the following list the designation 'abs' attached to MS. 205 signifies that the manuscript is known to be a copy, or Abschrift, of MS. 205. Instances of a known copy of another manuscript are exceedingly rare, which suggests that only a very small percentage of manuscripts have survived). 'M Earlier this century two additional categories of New Testament witnesses, namely talismans and ostraca, were listed by Ernst von Dobschiitz in Eberhard Nestle's Einfuhrung in das Griechische Neue Testament, 4te Aufl. (Gottingen, 1923), pp. 80 and 85 f. Today these categories are no longer utilized; OP is now identified as 0152, and 01'20 as 0153 (see Kurt Aland, KwrzgeJasste Liste der griechischen Handschrtften des Neuen Testaments, i [Berlin, 1963]). Ostraca are fragments of unglazed pottery vessels (which could be picked up from any rubbish heap) and were used in antiquity as we use scrap paper today. A series of twenty ostraca, written in three different hands probably in the seventh century, preserve portions of the Greek text of the
four Gospels, the longest continuous text of which is Luke 22:40-71. See G. Lefebvre, Fragments grecs des Evangiles sur Ostraka (Bulletin de PInstitut franc,ais d'arch6ologie orientale, iv [Cairo, 1904]), and A. Deissmann, Light from the Ancient East, new ed. (New York, '927), PP- 57-6o. '« The official list of New Testament Greek manuscripts is Kurt Aland's Kurzgefasste Liste, supplemented by continuations in his Materialien zur neutestamentlichen Handschrtften (Berlin, 1969), pp. 1-37, and in Bericht der Stiftung zur Forderung der neutestamentlichen Textforschungjiir die Jahre 1972 bis 1974 (Munster/Westfalen, '974). PP- 9~ l6 > and Bericht. . . 1975 und 1976 (1977), pp. 10-12.
54
STATISTICS RELATING TO NEW TESTAMENT MANUSCRIPTS century xi xii xii/xiii x j' xiii/xiv xiv
manuscripts 35, 241, 1384 242, 922 180 339> J597 1785 18, 201, 367, 386, 582, 680, 824, 935, 1075, 1503, 1637,
xiv/xv xv xvi
209 149, 205, 205abs, 664, 886, 1617, 2554 61, 296, 1704
55
1678, 22OO, 2494
Whether manuscripts contain the whole or only part of the New Testament, the order of books in most copies is Gospels, Acts, Catholic Epistles, Pauline Epistles (with Hebrews between 2 Thessalonians and i Timothy), Revelation.156 The sequence of Pauline Epistles preceding Catholic Epistles occurs in a few Greek minuscule manuscripts as well as in a good many Latin manuscripts, from which it was adopted in editions of the Latin Vulgate (according to the decree of the Council of Trent in 1546) and in versions in modern languages. In half a dozen manuscripts, including codex Sinaiticus (Plate 14) and MS. 69 (Plate 45), the Pauline Epistles precede Acts. In p46 (Plate 6) Hebrews follows Romans, and in an ancestor from which codex Vaticanus was copied (see p. 41 above) Hebrews followed Galatians. The four Gospels usually stand in their familiar order, but in codex Bezae (Plate 19), as well as in several Old Latin manuscripts and in the Gothic version, they are in the sequence Matthew, John, Luke, Mark.157 A considerable number of New Testament Greek manuscripts present the text in more than one language.158 In a few cases the second language is interlinear (see Plate 28); in the great majority, however, the two texts stand in adjoining columns (see Plates 22 and 40) or on facing pages (see Plate 19). When Greek is one of the two languages, it customarily stands in the left-hand column or on the left-hand page, and the other language on the right (for an exception, see Plate 22). The following lists identify ninety-seven New Testament Greek manuscripts that present the text in two or more languages:
's6 This sequence was adopted in the editions published by Lachmann (1842-50), Tischendorf (186972), Tregelles (1857-79), Westcott-Hort (1881), Baljon (1898), von Gebhardt (1901), and von Soden (1913). 's? For information about still other sequences in Greek and versional manuscripts, see Caspar Rene
Gregory, Textkritik des Neuen Testamentes, ii (Leipzig, 1902; reprinted 1976), pp. 848-58. Is8 For information concerning these manuscripts, as well as lists of other bilingual and polylingual New Testament manuscripts that have no Greek text, see the present writer's contribution to the forthcoming Festschrift in honor of Prof. Bo Reicke.
56
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE B I L I N G U A L NEW TESTAMENT GREEK MSS.
Gregory-Aland numbers
Languages Greek and Arabic
0136, 0137, 211, 609, 16, /225, /3ii, 7762, /8o4,
Greek and Armenian Greek and Coptic
256
7937, /io23, /i343, 71344, 71746, 71733, 71774
P6, P41> P42, P62, T, 070, 086, oioo, oiio, 0113 0124, 0125, 0129, 0139, 0164, 0177, 0178, 0179, Ol8o, 0184, OigO, Oigi, 0193, 0200, 0202, 0203,
Greek and Latin Greek and Slavonic Greek and Turkish
0204, 0205, 0236, 0237, 0238, 0239, 0260, /I43, /gGi, 7962, 7963, /964a, 7964^ 7965, /I353, 71355, /i575, /i602, /i603, /i604, /i606, /i607, /i614, 71678, /i739, /I994 D (Bezae), D (Claromontanus), E (Laudianus), F, G (Boernerianus), A, 0130, 0230, 9abs, 16, 17, 74, 130, 165, 620, 628, 629, 694, 866b, 7925 525, 2136, 2137 !325
T R I L I N G U A L N E W T E S T A M E N T G R E E K MSS.
Coptic, Greek, and Arabic Greek, Coptic, and Arabic Greek, Latin, and Arabic
^993 71605 460
According to statistics published in 1967, of a total of 5236 manuscripts of the Greek New Testament, 80 percent are in eight countries. In first place, as would be expected, is Greece, with 1458 manuscripts; then follow Italy with 729; Great Britain, 474; France, 390; Soviet Union, 299; USA, 295; Egypt, 254; and Germany, 128. Listed according to location, more than 500 manuscripts are on Mount Athos; between 200 and 500 are at London, Paris, Rome, Athens, and Mount Sinai; between 100 and 200, at Oxford, Leningrad, and Jerusalem; between 50 and 100, at Cambridge, Berlin, Venice, Florence, Grottaferrata, Patmos, Moscow, Ann Arbor, and Chicago.159 In all of Central and South America there is, so far as is reported in Aland's official listing, only one manuscript of the Greek New Testament.160 159 For these statistics, see K. Aland, Studien ZUT Uberlieferung des Neuen Testamentes und seines Textes (Berlin, 1967), pp. 208 and 227. 160 In 1952 the present writer made inquiry of twelve large libraries and museums in South America concerning their holdings of New Testament manuscripts. Of the four replies received, only one (from the National Library at Rio de Janeiro) stated that the library had one Greek manuscript, the content of which was unknown. Later that year a visit to the library disclosed that the manuscript is a twelfth-century
parchment codex of the four Gospels, lacking the early chapters of Matthew. A brief description of the manuscript was sent to Professor Kurt Aland (who assigned the number 2437 to the manuscript) and a more lengthy description was published in an article (tranlated into Portuguese by Philip S. Landes), 'Un manuscrito grego dos quatro evangelhos na Biblioteca Nacional do Rk> de Janeiro,' Revista teoldgica do Seminario Presbiteriemo do Sul (Campinas), N.F. ii (1952-53), pp. 5-10. A microfilm of the manuscript is in Speer Library, Princeton Theological Seminary.
PART TWO
Plates and Descriptions
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Plates and Descriptions FTP HE following plates depict specimen pages from a variety of manuscripts of J_ the Greek Bible, chosen because of some special feature, whether palaeographic, historical, or textual. Cross-references to and from the first section of the volume will assist the reader to correlate the systematic discussion there with specific points illustrated in the several plates. The description of each manuscript follows a certain pattern. The heading supplies information as to the passage of Scripture reproduced in the plate and the name and/or number of the manuscript, with its date. In the case of Old Testament manuscripts, the identification is in accord with the system developed by Alfred Rahlfs in his Verzeichnis der griechischen Handschriften des Alien Testaments (Gottingen, 1914), and continued by Robert Hanhart of the University of Gottingen. In the case of New Testament manuscripts the identification is in accord with the system devised by Caspar Rene Gregory and continued by Kurt Aland in his Kurzgefasste Lisle der griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments, i. Gesamtubersicht (Berlin, 1963). The line following the heading presents information concerning the place, the collection, the number within that collection, and the folio of the manuscript shown in the plate. The opening paragraph ordinarily provides a summary of palaeographic and codicological features of the manuscript as a whole. The dates assigned to undated manuscripts are generally in accord with those suggested by Rahlfs or Aland, or, in the case of recently discovered items, by the editor of the document. All dates are to be understood as belonging to the Christian era except those that are expressly designated as B.C. In giving the measurements of a manuscript, the height is followed by the width. In the discussion that follows the opening paragraph of each description, attention is drawn to features that make the manuscript important palaeographically, historically, or textually. In most cases the description closes with a brief bibliography bearing on one or another aspect of the given manuscript. The script of each of the several manuscripts shown in the plates is reproduced in its actual size unless the area of writing on a folio exceeds the height and width of a page in the present book (i i x 8 J^ inches; 28 x 21.6 cm.). In a few cases the empty margins of a folio have been cropped by the photographer so that the script could be shown more nearly in its actual size. In the transcription of texts shown in the plates, instances of itacism as well as erroneous accent and breathing marks have been corrected; likewise, capitalization and punctuation (when introduced) follow modern editorial conventions. A dot under a Greek letter signifies that there is some amount of doubt as to the reading. A letter that is totally illegible is represented by a centered dot. 59
i. Deuteronomy 25:1-3. Rahlfs 957. ii cent. B.C. MANCHESTER, JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY, P. RYL. 458, FRAG. B. In 1917 the John Rylands Library of Manchester acquired two pieces of cartonnage (wrapping used for encasing mummies), made of an amalgam of small papyrus scraps that included fragments^of four separate columns of a roll containing the Greek text of Deuteronomy. The verso of the roll was used for taking an account before it went to the scrap-merchant to be made into cartonnage. Fragment b, shown in the Plate, measures 3^ X 3>i in. (8 X 8.4 cm.). The writing, dated by the editor to the ii century B.C., is
carefully executed and heavily ornamented; cf. kappa (line 5), mu (line 4), nu (line 5), and tau (line i). The scribe left a small space at the end of a group of words and a slightly larger one at the end of a clause or end of a sentence (as in fragment a, not shown in the Plate). In line 4 a dot is visible between the a and a of the editor thinks that 'apparently the scribe wrote par, then corrected the T to a a, erasing the left horizontal stroke of the T, and the apparent dot is the remnant of the hook of the original T.'
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. H. Roberts, Two Biblical Papyri in the John Rylands Library (Manchester, 1936), pp. 9-46; idem, Catalogue of the Greek and Latin Papyri in the John Rylands Library, iii (Manchester, 1938), pp. 3-8; H. G. Opitz and H. H. Schaeder, 'Zum Septuaginta-Papyrus Rylands Greek 458,' ^eitschrift fur die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, xxxv (1936), pp. 115-17; A. Vaccari, S.J., 'Fragmentum Biblicum saeculi II ante Christum,' Biblica, xvii (1936), pp. 501-4. Cf. Paul E. Kahle, The Cairo Geniza, and ed. (Oxford, 1959), pp. 220-2.
2. Exodus 28:4-6. Rahlfs 803. About 100 B.C. JERUSALEM, PALESTINE ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM, 70^1 LXX EX. Cave VII at Qumran is unique in that it contained only Greek documents, with no Hebrew or Aramaic texts (except NDi'l written twice on a large jar). Among the Greek documents, the text of which can be identified with certainty, are two papyrus fragments which, after an examination of the fibres, appear to belong near to each other; they measure (together), about 2 X '^ inches (5 X 2.3 cm.) and contain (Frag, i)
Exodus 28:4-6. Since only one side has writing, it is probable that the scraps are from a roll. The uncial script is ornamented with small hooks or serifs at the extremities of certain letters (similar to Schubart's 'Zierstil'; see §15), and can be dated to about 100 B.C. (so C. H. Roberts). Alpha, kappa, and omega are each made with two strokes of the pen.
i (Frag, a) J 5
10
5
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Baillet, J. T. Milik, and R. de Vaux, O.P., Les 'Petits Grottes' de Qumran (Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan, iii; Oxford, 1962), Textes, pp. 142 f.; Planches, xxx.
3. Deuteronomy 31:28-30; 32:1-7. Rahlfs 848. i cent. B.C. CAIRO, UNIVERSITY LIBRARY, P. FOUAD INV. 266, FRAG. 104-106. of the lines are not even. The letters, which seem to have been written with care, are upright, rounded uncials with ornamental serifs. Iota adscript, which occurs throughout the fragments (e.g. col. a, line 4), seems to be required by the space in lines 8 and 13 of col. b. Wherever the name of God appears in the text, the original scribe carefully reserved sufficient space for the addition of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton (see §20). The bibliography is on p. 140.
In 1943 the Societ6 F^gyptienne de Papyrologie obtained 113 fragments of a papyrus roll (or rolls) estimated to have been originally about 47 feet (15 meters) long, with 88 columns of writing. Fragments 104-106, shown in the Plate, have a top margin of i inch (2.5 cm.) and intercolumniation of 9/i6 inch (1.5 cm.). It has been computed (by Turner) that to complete chap. 31 an additional 12 lines are needed in col. a, making a total of 33 lines to the column, with a writing height of 9 to 9>£ inches (23 to 24 cm.). The ends Column a
Column b
60
Column b (continued)
1
3
2
4. John 18:31-33; 37-38. Gregory-Aland £52. First half ii cent. MANCHESTER, JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY, P. RYL. 45?. Acquired in Egypt in 1920, this papyrus fragment, measuring 3^ X 2^ inches (8.9 X 6 cm.), is generally assigned to about A.D. 100-150.' Since the upper margin and part of the inner margin are preserved, it can be estimated that eleven lines of text would be required to fill the gap between recto and verso, giving a page of eighteen lines, and that the entire Gospel would have required a codex of 130 pages, each measuring about 8^ X 8 inches (21.5 X 20 cm.). Apart from a few itacisms, the scribe's orthography is good and his hand, if not that of a practised scribe, is painstaking and regular. In the employment of the diaeresis both properly (as in line 2 recto ) and improperly (as in line 2 verso following a consonant), and in the omis-
sion of the iota adscript (line 4 verso ), the papyrus is in accord with other early examples of Greek texts. The only textual variation of significance is the probable omission of the second instance of els TOVTO in verse 37. If the full text of that verse is supplied, line 3 verso has 38 letters rather than the average 29/30. Consequently it is fairly certain that p82 represents a shorter version, perhaps the result of the scribe's having accidentally omitted the second instance of the phrase. In reading irdXii' before (ver. 33) p82 agrees with p66 B C* D8^1 L W A 054 0109 fam13 al.; the reverse order is read by N A C2 T 8 087 fam1, the Byzantine text, and the Textus Receptus. The bibliography is on p. 140.
Recto (John 18:31-33)
Verso (John 18:37-38)
5
5
1 It is thus the earliest known manuscript of any identifiable portion of the New Testament. Jos6 O'Callaghan's attempt (see footnote 41) to identify several tiny scraps of Greek papyri, found in Cave VII at Qumran, as portions of Mark, Acts, Romans, i Timothy, James, and 2 Peter, and to date them earlier than the date of p62, is widely regarded as unsuccessful; cf. discussions by C. H. Roberts, Journal of Theological Studies, n.s. xxiii (1972), pp. 446-7; P. Benoit, Revue Biblique, Ixxix (1972), pp. 321-4; Ixxx (1973), pp. 5-12; Gordon D. Fee, Journal of Biblical Literature, xcii (1973), pp. 109-12; and Kurt Aland in Studies in New Testament Language and Text, ed. by J. K. Elliott (Leiden, 1976), pp. 14-38.
5. Genesis 14:12-15. Rahlfs 814. Second half ii cent. NEW HAVEN, YALE UNIVERSITY, BEINECKE LIBRARY, P. YALE i, VERSO. in the early Church to the text of Gen. 14:14 when the numeral was written with Greek letters (see §5), Welles regarded P. Yale i as the oldest Christian document and a portion of the oldest papyrus codex known, dating from 'perhaps between A.D. 80 and 100.' This opinion, unsupported by any detailed study of the writing, has not found acceptance among papyrologists. E. G. Turner, for example, ascribes the fragment to the end of the second or the beginning of the third century,1 and C. H. Roberts to the second half of the second century.2
In 1931 Yale University acquired from a dealer in Egypt a fragmentary papyrus leaf, measuring 3^ X 5^4 inches (9.3 X 14.5 cm.) and containing Genesis 14:5-8 and 12-15. Since the fragment preserves the lower margin, the editor was able to estimate from the amount of text lost between ver. 8 and ver. 12 that the codex had 30 lines to the page and would have been complete in about 188 pages. This leaf would have been the 2ist, that is, pages 41 and 42. The hand of P. Yale i is clear, unpretentious, and easily read except where the papyrus is frayed or eaten away. Letters are all of about the same height and width, and it is rare that the pen runs on from one letter to another. Occasionally the scribe indulges in decorative finials, some strokes beginning or ending with slight curves or hooks. The central stroke of epsilon is often extended to the right, touching the next letter. The non-Greek name A COT (line 8) is followed by a mark resembling a grave accent, indicating division of words (see §18). Except for several orthographic and other minor variants, the fragment contains the generally accepted text of the Septuagint. At Gen. 14:14 in most Greek manuscripts the number of Abraham's servants (318) is spelled out ( but in six or seven others it is represented by Greek letters used as numerals, rirj. Although the script of the Yale fragment is illegible at this point, considerations of space make it altogether probable that it too had TIJ;. Because of the Christological interpretation given 1 3
5
10
In line 12 the scribe erroneously writes iredes, for at and e had come to be pronounced alike (see §8). The bibliography is on p. 140.
The Typology of the Early Codex (Philadelphia, 1977), p. 19. Manuscript, Society and Beliefs in Early Christian Egypt (London, 1979), p. 13.
62
4
5
6. Romans 16:23; Hebrews 1:1-7. Gregory-Aland p46. About A.D. 200. ANN ARBOR, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, INV. 6238, FOL. 21 RECTO. Single-quire papyrus codex, originally with 104 leaves of which 86 survive today (56 at Dublin in the Chester Beatty Library and 30 at Ann Arbor), containing the Pauline Epistles (but not the Pastorals), about A.D. 200, original size of page about n X 6^ inches (28 X 16.2 cm.), one column, 25 to 32 lines to a page, tending to increase as the manuscript progresses. The order of the Epistles in this, the earliest known copy of the Pauline correspondence, is remarkable: Romans (beginning at 5:17), Hebrews, r and 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Galatians, Philippians, Colossians, and i Thessalonians. Seven leaves are lost from the beginning and seven from the ending of the codex. The seven leaves lost from the end probably contained 2 Thessalonians, but would have been insufficient for the Pastoral Epistles. The inclusion of Hebrews among the Pauline Epistles reflects the high regard accorded this Epistle in the Eastern Church, where its Pauline authorship was generally accepted. The sequence of the Epistles, with Hebrews immediately after Romans, seems to have been dictated in accord with the decreasing lengths of the Epistles. The script is large, free, and flowing, with some pretensions to style and elegance. The upper termination of several letters (a, 5, i, *c, v) frequently is made with a slight curve or hook; the shaft of epsilon often extends to the right. Diaeresis generally stands over initial t and u (not shown in the Plate) and occasionally over medial i i line 7). A square breathing mark occurs occasionally. Pauses in sense are sometimes indicated by slight space-intervals between words. A cursive hand (apparently of the early third century) has added at the end of each book a statement concerning the number of arlxoi. (see §23); for the Epistle to the Romans the number given is 1000 (standing between lines i and 2, i. The page number MA (=41) is placed centrally in the upper margin. Above line 4 a second hand has inserted rinuv following (Heb. i:i). Textually p46 is frequently in agreement with the Alexandrian group of witnesses (B N A C), less often with the Western (D F G), and occasionally with the later Byzantine witnesses. The doxology in Romans, which in the great uncials stands at the end of the Epistle, and at the end of chap. 14 in the vast number of the minuscules, is here placed at the end of chap. 15. As regards Western readings in p48, according to A. W. Adams the codex 'offers no support for those attested by D alone, and thus raises the question whether the 'Western' readings it supports are properly so called, and are not rather very early elements common to both East and West which have disappeared from the Alexandrian and Eastern traditions. In relation to the Byzantine text p46 shows that some readings (faulty as well as genuine) go back to a very early period.'1 BIBLIOGRAPHY-* Frederic G. Kenyon, The Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri. . . Fasciculus III Supplement, Pauline Epistles, Text (London, 1936); Plates (1937); W. H. P. Hatch, 'The Position of Hebrews in the Canon of the New Testament,' Harvard Theological Review, xxix (^S^), pp. 133-51; G. Zuntz, The Text of the Epistles,
Disquisition on the Corpus Paulinum (London, 1953); Harry Gamble, Jr., The Textual History of the Letter to the Romans (Grand Rapids, 1977); and S. Giversen, 'The Pauline Epistles on Papyrus,' Die Paulinische Literatur und Theologie, ed. by Sigfred Pedersen (Gottingen, 1980), pp. 201-12.
1 F. G. Kenyon, The Text of the Greek Bible, 3rd ed., revised and augmented by A. W. Adams (London, 1975), p. 71.
64
6
7. John 11:31-37. Gregory-Aland p66. About A.D. 200. COLOGNY-GENEVA, BIBLIOTHECA BODMERIANA, PAP. 2, PAGE 79. corrections made (a) by insertions above the line (lines 2 and 12) or within the line (o inserted before IF, line 13); (b) by deletion with a sponge and then re-writing (line 9 i the last four letters of which are still visible at the beginning of line 10); (c) by using expunging dots and curved brackets to mark a relic of an earlier reading (line 11 Like codex W (see discussion of Plate 16) p66 varies in textual type from one part of the manuscript to another. In chapters 1-5 it shows close relationship to the three major Alexandrian witnesses, p76 B C, while in the rest of the book it exhibits a mixture of Western readings—abundant in chapters 6-7 and again in 11-12. It also possesses a certain number of readings that agree with the Byzantine type of text; most of such readings appear to be secondary, creating an easier text or a more common Greek style.
Papyrus codex, containing the Gospel according to John (with lacunae), c. A.D. aoo,1 6f^ X 5$4 inches (16.2 X 14.2 cm.), one column, 17 lines to a page. Page format is nearly square; written in a medium-sized, rounded uncial, some letters having serifs. Page number oQ ( = 79) stands in upper right-hand corner. Nomina sacra shown in the Plate are lines 3, 6, and 13; line 5, and line 10. A line-filler at the end of line 4 resembles an apostrophe. Final nu is indicated by a horizontal line (end of lines 5 and 6); xai-compendium occurs at the close of lines 7 and 17 and between lines 11 and 12. Two prickings near the top margin and two near the bottom served to guide the scribe in placing his writing area. One of the special features of p86 is the large number of corrections made to its text—about 450 in all. Plate 7 shows
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Victor Martin, Papyrus Bodmer II, fivangile de Jean, chap. 1-14 (grec) (Cologny-Geneva, 1956); idem, Suppliment,chap. 14-21 (grec) (1958); (enlarged ed., with facsimile of entire MS., 1962); J. N. Birdsall, The Bodmer Papyrus of the Gospel of John (London, 1960); G. D. Fee, 'The Corrections of Papyrus Bodmer II,' Novum Testamentum, vii (1965), pp. 247-57; E. F. Rhodes, 'The Corrections of P. Bodmer II,' New Testament Studies, xiv (1968), pp. 271-81; G. D. Fee, Papyrus Bodmer II (P66): its Textual Relationships and Scribal Characteristics (Studies and Documents, xxxiv, Salt Lake City, 1968). 1 Herbert Hunger dates p66 to a time not later than the middle of the second century (Anzeiger des phil.-hist. Klasse der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1960, Nr. 4, pp. 12-23), whereas E. G. Turner prefers a date c. A.D. 200-250 (Greek Manuscripts of the Ancient World, p. 108).
8. Tatian's Diatessaron. Gregory-Aland 0212. First half iii cent. NEW HAVEN, YALE UNIVERSITY, BEINECKE LIBRARY, DURA PARCH. 24 (D PG. 24). In 1933 a fragment of fairly heavy parchment, measuring 4>^ X 3^4 inches (10.5 X 9-5 cm.), was found at Dura Europos, a Roman border-town destroyed A.D. 256 by the Persian troops of King Shapur I. Written on only one side, the fragment may have once been part of a roll. It is the only surviving Greek witness of Tatian's Diatessaron, an edition of the four Gospels in a continuous narrative. The text is written in a good book-hand, the words frequently set off from each other by blank spaces. An extra wide space in line 3 may be intended to mark a paragraph. The tips of the letters are frequently decorated with a small hook or apex turning to the left. There are three kinds of
alpha: the older capital, the uncial, and the third-century cursive-type. Mu is characterized by a deep saddle. The tau and eta of in line 2 are written in ligature, apparently to save space. Nomina sacra are indicated by a line above them, and by a medial dot following them (lines 3, 10, 13). A singular reading of Luke 23-49 seems to be preserved in lines i and 2 (partly reconstructed: ('the wives of those who had been his disciples'). The text, restored by the editor, is as follows (v indicates an empty space one letter in width). TRANSLATION
[. . . the mother of the sons of Zebedjee (Matt, xxvii. 56) and Salome (Mark xv. 40) and the wives [of those who] had followed him from [Galileje to see the crucified (Luke xxiii. 4gb-c). And [the da]y was Preparation: the Sabbath was daw[ning] (Luke xxiii. 54). And when it was evening (Matt, xxvii. 57), on the Preparation], that is, the day before the Sabbath (Mark xv. 42), [there came] up a man (Matt, xxvii. 57), be [ing] a member of the council (Luke xxiii. 50), from Arimathea (Matt, xxvii. 57), a c[i]ty of [Jude]a (Luke xxiii. 5ib), by name Jo[seph] (Matt, xxvii. 57), g[o]od and rifghteous] (Luke xxiii. 50), being a disciple of Jesus, but se[cret]ly, for fear of the [Jew]s (John xix. 38). And he (Matt, xxvii. 57) was looking for [the] k[ingdom] of God (Luke xxiii. 5ic). This man [had] not [con]sented to [their] p[urpose] (Luke xxiii. 513) ..
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BIBLIOGRAPHY: Carl H. Kraeling, A Greek Fragment of Tatian's Diatessaron from Dura (Studies and Documents, iii; London, 1935); C. Bradford Welles, R. O. Fink, and J. Frank Gilliam, The Parchments and Papyri (The Excavations at Dura-Europos . . , Final Report V, Part i (New Haven, 1959), pp. 23-4; B. M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament (Oxford, 1977), pp. 10-36. 66
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g. Luke 16:9-21. Gregory-Aland Jj75. Early iii cent. COLOGNY-GENEVA, BIBLIOTHECA BODMERIANA, PAP. XIV, PAGE 45. Papyrus codex, containing most of the Gospel according to Luke, early iii century, io*4 X 5/^ inches (26 X 13 cm.), one column, averaging 42 lines to the page. This, the earliest known copy of Luke, is written in a medium-sized, rounded uncial, though some letters (particularly omicron and sigma} are much smaller than the average size. The scribe marks paragraphs by leaving blank a space of one or two letters, and extends into the left-hand margin the first letter of the following line (see lines 17-18 and 34-35). Final nu is indicated by horizontal line over the last letter (lines 10, 28, 29). Apostrophe is used after owe (line 8) and as a separator line 27). Diaeresis occasionally occurs over i and u (lines 2 and 3). What appears to be intended as a rough breathing mark stands over tj in line 26. Textually the manuscript is of importance in showing that the Alexandrian type of text characteristic of the fourth-century codices Vaticanus (B) and Sinaiticus (N) was current at the beginning of the third century (see studies mentioned in the bibliography). Furthermore, not only is the text of p75 Alexandrian, but it is closer to B than that of any other manuscript, while the influence of readings of the Western type is almost non-existant. This goes a long way, as A. W. Adams remarks, 'to showing that the B-type of text was already in existence in Egypt, and in a relatively pure form, before the end of the second century. If so, the view, much canvassed in recent years, that the Alexandrian text-type was a third or fourth century recension—i.e. a deliberately revised or 'made' text formed out of the 'popular' texts of the second century—will need considerable revision.'1 A noteworthy variant reading is the name given to the Rich Man mentioned in Luke 16:19. Following the words p78 is the only known Greek manuscript that adds (Plate 9, line 8 from bottom). Inasmuch as the Sahidic version of this verse gives the name Nineveh to the anonymous Rich Man,2 it is probable that O N O M A T i N e y H C is a scribal blunder for O N O M A T i N i N e y H C . BIBLIOGRAPHY: Victor Martin and Rodolphe Kasser, Papyrus Bodmer XIV, Evangile de Luc chap. 3-24 (ColognyGeneva, 1961); C. L. Porter, 'Papyrus Bodmer XV (P75) and the Text of Codex Vaticanus,' Journal of Biblical Literature, Ixxxi (1962), pp. 363-76; Kurt Aland, Studien zur Uberlieferung des Neuen Testaments and
seines Textes (Berlin, 1967), pp. 155-72; and especially Carlo M. Martini, // problema delta recensionalita del codice B alia luce del papiro Bodmer XIV (Rome, 1966). For a collation of p76 against the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament, see [Raymond Lejoly], Annotations pour une etude du Papyrus 75 .. (Dison, 1976).
1 F. G. Kenyon, The Text of the Greek Bible, 3rd ed., revised and augmented by A. W. Adams (London, 1975), P. 377For other examples in early Christian tradition of names being given to those who are nameless in the New Testament, see chap. 2 in the present writer's volume New Testament Studies, Philological, Versional, and Patristic (Leiden, 1980).
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io. Ezekiel 31:8-15. Rahlfs 967. Early iii cent. PRINCETON, UNIVERSITY LIBRARY, SCHEIDE PAP. i, PAGE 71. Early third-century papyrus codex, 1 3 ^ X 5 inches (34.4 X 12.8 cm.), containing Ezekiel, Daniel, and Esther, originally embracing 118 leaves, of which 109 are known today: 21 in the Scheide collection, the others in Barcelona, Cologne, Dublin, and Madrid. Daniel and Esther are in a hand different from Ezekiel, and the sequence of the books agrees with that of codex Alexandrinus. Page oa ( = 71) is shown in the Plate. Verso pages average 51.1 lines, recto pages average 53.8 lines. Lines vary from 16 to 27 letters, but rarely exceed 22 letters in length. When a long line would have ended in the letter nu, the scribe saved space by indicating this letter with a horizontal line over the preceding vowel (lines 7, 38, 40). In tlje case of short lines, sometimes a space-filler in the form of an angular bracket is inserted; more often the scribe widened letters, particularly a final nu (line 15). Here and there are marks of punctuation (the high point sometimes resembles an acute accent), but there seems to be no consistent plan of their use. The ending of a paragraph is usually indicated by two short sloping parallel lines (lines i o and 46), with the initial letter of the following line extending slightly into the left-hand margin. According to Revell (see Bibliography below), the paragraphing of the Greek text is related somehow to the petuhot and setwnot ('open' and 'closed' divisions) of the Hebrew Bible; the two-stroke sign occurs in 24 of the 31 cases where the Masoretic text has petuha (77%), and in 38 of the 62 cases where setuma occurs (66%). Among the special features of the Scheide text is the use of the single KS in designating the nomen sacrum when the other uncial manuscripts more closely represent the present Masoretic text by a doublet of some form or other. Of other singular readings one of the more interesting is for (Ezek. 36:8); this is the reading of the Hebrew text, but curiously enough it occurs (according to Ziegler's apparatus criticus) in no other Greek manuscript, and seems to have been unknown to Origen. According to Johnson, Gehman, and Kase (see Bibliography), 'the use of on and in the Scheide text calls for special comment since Herrmann and Baumgartel sought to support their theory of different translators for Ezekiel by the variations in the use of these conjunctions which are to be found in Vaticanus. In B certain sections usually show Sum in the oracular phrase while others are consistent in using on. In this phrase or its variants the new text uses on. throughout with but one exception (xxii. 22). Elsewhere and are used indifferently without regard to the avoidance of hiatus' (pp. 14 f.). The Plate shows the page slightly reduced in size. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The John H. Scheide Biblical Papyri: Ezekiel, ed. by Allan C. Johnson, Henry S. Gehman, Edmund H. Kase, Jr. (Princeton, 1938); Sir F. G. Kenyon, The Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri, fasc. vii (London, 1937), Part a, Plates (1938); Manuel Fer-
nandez-Galiano, 'Nuevas paginas del c6dice 967 del A. T. griego (Ez 28,19-43,9) (P. Matr. bibl. i),' Studio Papyrologica, x (1971), pp. 7~77; E. J. Revell, 'A Note on Papyrus 967,'ibid., xv (1976), pp. 131-6.
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11. Genesis 42:7-19. Rahlfs 962. Second half of iii cent. DUBLIN, CHESTER BEATTY LIBRARY, PAP. V, FOL. 19 RECTO. Papyrus codex of 27 fragmentary leaves (of an original 84), containing part of the Book of Genesis, second half of iii century A.D., having an estimated original measurement of 8 J^ X 6 inches (about 21 X 15.2 cm.), one column, average of 18 or 19 lines to the page. The writing of codex 962 is markedly different from the hands of all the other manuscripts in the Beatty collection, in being of a definitely non-literary type. It is a good documentary hand, upright and somewhat compressed laterally. Several of the letters are exaggerated in size, notably 0, £, p, , and l/. The letter « is made in two distinct halves, the upper portion (which includes the cross-bar) being often noticeably large. The scribe concludes some letters (e.g. 0 and £) with
a flourish; he also extends the horizontal line over nomina sacra far to the right, beyond the nomen sacrum (lines 6 and 18). The word is contracted when used in the secular sense of 'master' (line 6) as well as when referring to the Deity. The rough breathing occurs occasionally (line 13 d>5«, line 15 [for ]). Initial t and i; often have the diaeresis. There is no punctuation. A very few corrections have been entered between the lines; e.g., the addition of Se after (line 8). Page-enumeration has been added in the middle of the upper margin in a large cursive hand other than that of the original scribe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Frederic G. Kenyon, The Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri; Descriptions and Texts of Twelve Manuscripts on Papyrus of the Greek Bible, Fasciculus iv, Genesis, Text (London, 1934); Fasciculus iv, Genesis (Pap. V), Plates (London, 1936); Albert Pietersma, Chester Beatty Biblical Papryi IV and V; a New Edition, with Text-Critical Analysis (American Studies in Papyrology, 16; Toronto and Sarasota, 1977).
12. Revelation 3:19-4: i. Gregory-Aland o 169. iv cent.
PRINCETON, THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY LIBRARY, PAP. 5, RECTO. A parchment leaf (= P.Oxy. 1080) from a small, pocket-sized codex of the Book of Revelation, iv century, 3^ X 2^i inches (9.5 X 7.8 cm.),one column, 14 lines to the page. Since this is page 33 (A|~ stands in the upper right-hand corner), the complete text of Revelation would have made a pudgy, pocket-sized volume.1 The hand of 0169 is a fair-sized upright uncial, fairly regular, and having a certain amount of ornamental finish. The scribe forms sigma with two strokes of the pen, and epsilon with three strokes; kappa and upsilon have serifs. A corrector has altered £rjcvc (line i) to frfk&xrov, in agreement with K P 1 and the Byzantine text. By oversight the eye of the scribe passed from the first to the second instance of in 4:20,
omitting the intervening words. Later, having noticed the omission, the scribe or someone else placed a conventional mark (indicating insertion) in line 3 between K.O.I and ~ and wrote the missing words in the lower margin—of which only traces remain today: IOf the approximately 250 manuscript witnesses to the Book of Revelation, ten are uncials; only three of these are complete (M, A, and 046), and three others comprise but a single leaf each (0163, 0169, and 0207). According to R. H. Charles, the text of the Princeton fragment agrees 'much more closely with K than with any other uncial.'3
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, ed. by A. S. Hunt, viii (London, 1911), pp. 14 f.
1 On pocket-sized codices, see W. H. Worrell, The Coptic Manuscripts in the Freer Collection (New York, 1923), pp. xi-xiii; A. Henrichs and L. Koenen, 'Ein griechischer Mani-Codex,' ^eitschriftjur Papyrologie und Epigraphik, v (1970), pp. 100-3; and Eric G. Turner, The Typology of the Early Codex (Philadelphia, 1977), pp. 30 ff. Since all but one of the forty-five pocket-sized codices dating from the third and fourth centuries contain works of Christian literature, Roberts is certainly justified in concluding that 'the miniature codex would seem to be a Christian invention' (Manuscript, Society and Belief in Early Christian Egypt [London, 1979], p. 12). * The Revelation of St. John (International Critical Commentary), ii (New York, 1920), p. 450.
12
11
13. 2 Thess. 3:11-18; Heb. 1:1-2:2. Gregory-Aland B (Codex Vaticanus). iv cent. ROME, BIBLIOTEGA VATICANA, GR. 1209, PAGE 1512. Fourth-century vellum codex of the Bible, 759 leaves (617 of Old Testament, 142 of New Testament), averaging io>£ X io}4 inches (27.5 X 27.5 cm.), three columns, 42 lines to a column. New Testament defective after Heb. 9:14 (lacks i and 2 Tim., Titus, Philem., Rev.). Every book of the Greek Old Testament is included, except 1-4 Maccabees and the Prayer of Manasseh, which never found a place in the manuscript. The writing is small and neat, without ornamentation or capitals. Unfortunately the beauty of the original has been spoiled by a later scribe who found the ink faded and traced over every letter afresh, omitting only those letters and words that he believed to be incorrect. A few passages therefore remain to show the original appearance of the first hand. There appear to have been two scribes of the Old Testament and one of the New Testament, and two correctors, one (B2) about contemporary with the scribes, the other (B3) of about the tenth or eleventh century. In the Old Testament the type of text varies, with a good text in Ezekiel, and a bad one in Isaiah. In Judges the text differs substantially from that of the majority of manuscripts, but agrees with the Old Latin and Sahidic versions and Cyril of Alexandria. In Job it has the additional 400 halfverses from Theodotion, which are not in the Old Latin and Sahidic versions. In the New Testament the text of the Gospels and Acts is the purest known example of the Alexandrian type of text, preserved also in p76, which dates from about A.D. 200 (see Plate 9). In the Pauline Epistles there is a distinctly Western element. Accent and breathing marks, as well as punctuation, have been added by a later hand. In the New Testament, quotations from the Old Testament are indicated by marks in the left-hand margin of the column (see the lower part of col. b). The Ammonian section and Eusebian canon numbers do not appear, which points to a date before they were generally known. The chapter divisions in the Gospels (a system found in only one other manuscript, the sixth-century MS. H) are topical; the Acts and the Epistles have two independent numerations (for one of them see §25). Because no numeration is applied to 2 Peter, it has been concluded that the system of divisions dates from a time before this Epistle came to be commonly regarded as canonical. As to the place of origin of codex Vaticanus, Hort was inclined to assign it to Rome; others to southern Italy or.to Caesarea. But the similarity of its text in significant portions of both Testaments with the Coptic versions and with Greek papyri, and the style of writing (notably the Coptic forms used in some of the titles) point rather to Egypt and Alexandria. In the Plate the first column concludes with the subscription and a note (see §24 end). The scribe began the text of the second column with a small initial T for the first word but a later scribe inserted a large initial II, which he decorated with blue ink; this ink is used as well for the horizontal bar over the column. Above the bar stand three crosses made with red ink, which was used also to decorate the top of the large II. The left-hand margin opposite Heb. i: 3 preserves a curiously indignant note by a rather recent scribe who restored the original (but erroneous) reading of the manuscript for which a corrector had substituted the usual reading, The note reads ('Fool and knave, can't you leave the old reading alone, and not alter it!') The Plate shows the page slightly reduced in size. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Photographic facsimile, Bibliorum ss. Graecorum Codex Vaticanus 1209 . . . (Milan, 1904; 1907); in 1968 the New Testament portion was issued by the Vatican in photographic facsimile in color (with an introduction by Carlo M. Martini, S.J.) and a copy given to each bishop attending Vatican Council II; E. Tisserant, 'Notes sur la preparation de P6dition en fac-simile typographique du Codex Vaticanus (B),' Angelicum, xx (1943), pp. 237-48; Sakae Kubo, P'11
and the Codex Vaticanus (Studies and Documents, 27; Salt Lake City, 1965); Janco §agi, S.J., 'Problema historiae codicis B,' Divus Thomas; commentarium de phi' losophia et theologica, Ixxv (1972), pp. 3-29; and Jean Duplacy,'Les divisions du texte de 1'Epitre de Jacques dans B (03) du Nouveau Testament (Vatic. Gr. 1209),' Studies in New Testament Language and Text, ed. by J. K. Elliott (Leiden, 1976), pp. 122-36. Cf. also bibliography cited for Plate 9.
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14- Luke 24:23-53. Gregory-Aland X (Codex Sinaiticus). iv cent. LONDON, BRITISH LIBRARY, ADD. 43725, FOL. 246 VERSO. Fourth-century vellum codex of the Bible, preserving part of the O.T. and all of the N.T.,1 with the Epistle of Barnabas and part of the Shepherd of Hermas (as far as Mandate iv-3.6), 43 leaves at Leipzig, fragments of three others at Leningrad, and 347 at the British Library (199 of the Old Testament, 148 of the New Testament), measuring when found, according to Gregory, i6^i X 14^ inches (43 X 37.8 cm.), but now, according to Milne and Skeat, 15 X 13^ inches (38.1 X 34.5 cm.), four columns (two in Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, and Job), 48 lines to a column. The codex Sinaiticus gets its name from the place of its discovery, the famous monastery of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai, built in the middle of the sixth century A.D. by the Emperor Justinian. The romantic story of how in the mid-nineteenth century Constantine von Tischendorf found the manuscript, some leaves of which were in a waste-basket waiting to be burnt, has often been told and need not be repeated here.3 Taken in 1859 to St. Petersburg and presented to Alexander II, the Czar of Russia, in 1933 the codex was purchased by the British Museum for the sum of £100,000, raised largely by public appeal in Britain and America, supplemented by a grant from the British government. In its original state the manuscript probably comprised at least 730 leaves (1460 pages) of fine vellum, made from both sheepskin and goatskin. Since the size of the double sheets of vellum, each making two leaves (four pages), must originally have measured about 17 X 30 inches (43 X 76 cm.), and since each no doubt represents the skin of a single animal, the expense of providing the necessary animals (about 360) must have come to a considerable sum.3 Sinaiticus is written in a simple and dignified 'Biblical uncial' hand, the letters being free from ornamental serifs. There are no accents and breathing marks. A new paragraph is indicated by extending the initial letter (which is not enlarged) slightly into the left-hand margin; the preceding line is often not filled out to the right-hand margin. Before the manuscript left the scriptorium4 the Eusebian apparatus (see §26) was entered with red ink in the margins of the Gospels, except in Luke, where the numerals terminate at 9:61 with section number 106 (fol. 37r). Tischendorf, followed by Lake, identified four different scribes in the production of the codex, whom he named A, B, C, and D. On the basis, however, of more recent detailed scrutiny of the manuscript by Milne and Skeat it has become clear that there were only three. These three hands are extraordinarily alike, suggesting that the scribes must have received their training in some large writing school with a definite tradition of its own. At the same time, however, they disclose individual peculiarities, apart from the formation of letters, which make it possible to distinguish them. One of these is the difference in the correctness of the spelling of each scribe. In Greek, as in English, pronunciation continued to develop (see §8) after the spelling of words had become fixed, with the result that correct spelling had to be learned in the main by sheer force of memory.
1 Of the 274 uncial manuscripts of the New Testament, Sinaiticus is the only one that contains the entire twenty-seven books of the New Testament. They stand in the order of Gospels, Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews following 2 Thessalonians), Acts, Catholic Epistles, Revelation. 2 See, e.g., B. M. Metzger, The Text of the New Testament, pp. 42 ff. The news that 'at least 8—perhaps even 14—folios from Codex Sinaiticus' have recently turned up at St. Catherine's Monastery has been reported by James H. Charlesworth; see 'The Manuscripts of St. Catherine's Monastery,' Biblical Archaeologist, xliii (1980), p. 27; see also 'Die neuen SinaiFunde,' Bericht der Hermann Kunst-Stiftung z.wr Forderung
der neutestamentlichen Textforschung fur die Jahre 7977 bis '979 (Munster/Westf., 1979), pp. 46~58. esp- 49» and Linos Politis, 'Nouveaux manuscrits grecs d6couverts au Mont Sinai. Rapport preliminaire,' Scriptorium, xxxiv (1980), pp. 5-17. 3 The further cost of transcribing the manuscript is estimated by J. Rendel Harris to have come to 28,960 denarii (New Testament Autographs, supplement to the American Journal of Philology, no. 12; [Baltimore, n.d.], p. 23). 4 The Eusebian apparatus must have been added before the cancel-leaves in Matthew (folios 10 and 15) were prepared by Scribe D, for these, and only these in Matthew, lack the section and canon numbers.
76
CODEX SINAITICUS
77
The spelling of scribe D of Sinaiticus is well-nigh faultless; scribe B, by contrast, is an exceedingly poor speller, while scribe A is not very much better. These and other points make it possible to show that scribe A wrote most of the historical and poetical books of the Old Testament, almost the whole of the New Testament, and the Epistle of Barnabas, while scribe B was responsible tor the Prophets and the Shepherd of Hermas. The work of scribe D was curiously spasmodic: in the Old Testament he wrote the whole of Tobit and Judith, the first half of 4 Maccabees, and the first two-thirds of the Psalms. In the New Testament, besides writing the first five verses of Revelation, he rewrote six pages where, apparently, scribe A had made some unusually serious mistake. Besides errors in spelling, here and there in the work of all three scribes one finds other faults, particularly accidental omissions. In the light of such carelessness in transcription, it is not surprising that a good many correctors (apparently as many as nine) have been at work on the manuscript, some contemporary (or identical) with the original scribes (N a ), and others as late as the twelfth century. Tischendorf's edition of the manuscript enumerates some 14,800 places where some alteration has been made to the text. By far the most extensive of the corrections are those made by a group of scholars in the seventh century (denoted by the sigla K c-a orfctc.b —the latter representing at least three scribes). The most important of these is N c-a, who carefully revised the entire manuscript (except the Epistle of Barnabas), bringing it into general conformity with the Byzantine texts familiar to him. Another corrector, called N c- Pamph by Kirsopp Lake, added extremely important notes at the end of 2 Esdras (= Nehemiah) and Esther. These state that the manuscript was collated with a very early copy bearing an autograph note by Pamphilus the martyr to the effect that he himself had corrected this manuscript in prison from Origen's own copy of the Hexapla. If this is so, the corrections of this hand (which begin with i Samuel and end with Esther) are based on a manuscript only one step removed from Origen himself. By the use of the ultra-violet lamp, Milne and Skeat discovered that the original reading in the manuscript was erased at a few places and another written in its place by the same scribe. In Matt. 6:28, for example, instead of 'Consider the lilies of the field how they grow; they neither toil nor spin,' the first hand of K seems to have read '. . . how they neither card nor spin nor toil' (TCOS ov [itacism for instead of the usual text, ' ov This reading of N*, not otherwise attested in New Testament manuscripts, is included in the New English Bible as a marginal reading. R.V.G. Tasker explains the reasoning of the NEB committee in his textual notes to the edition of the Greek New Testament which inferentially lies behind the English rendering: 'As OTHENOTSIN, wrongly read as ATHANOTSIN, could have given rise to the other variants, and as seemed unnatural in the present context, the translators thought that the possibility that the reading of N * is original should be left open, but was retained in the text.' The last verse of the Gospel according to John (21125) is another passage where the use of ultraviolet light has confirmed Tischendorf's surmise as to the original reading. It is now known that the scribe for some reason finished the Gospel with ver. 24, adding the subscription and drawing, as usual, a coronis (tail-piece) in the left-hand margin between the text and the subscription. Later, however, the same scribe washed the vellum clean of the coronis and subscription and added the concluding verse, repeating the coronis and subscription in a correspondingly lower position. The place of the writing of codex Sinaiticus has been greatly debated. Hort thought that it was produced in the West, probably Rome; Milne and Skeat, following J. Rendel Harris, preferred Caesarea; other scholars, including Kenyon, Gardthausen, Ropes, and Jellicoe, found reasons to connect it with Alexandria. The date of Sinaiticus is ordinarily given as the fourth century, though Gardthausen, on the basis of epigraphical evidence, argued vigorously for the first half of the fifth century. On the other hand, as Milne and Skeat point out, palaeographically the hand resembles papyrus documents
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MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
that have been dated between about A.D. 200 and the second half of the fourth century. The one objective criterion of the terminus post quern is the presence of the Eusebian apparatus which was inserted, as it seems, by two of the scribes of the manuscript itself. The terminus ante quern is less certain, but, according to Milne and Skeat, is not likely to be much later than about 360. The character of the text of Sinaiticus varies from book to book in accord with the varying characters of the separate rolls or codices from which its text was ultimately derived. In the Old Testament it agrees, on the whole, with codex Vaticanus (B), which is usually regarded as the best all-round manuscript of the Greek Old Testament. As compared with B it contains additionally i and 4 Maccabees. In certain books, notably i Chronicles, 2 Esdras, and the Prophets, Sinaiticus has the better text, its superiority being especially marked in Isaiah. In Tobit, Sinaiticus has a considerably longer recension than that of Vaticanus and Alexandrinus, but there is no general agreement as to which is superior. In the New Testament, particularly in the Gospels and Acts, Sinaiticus and Vaticanus very frequently agree against the overwhelming majority of later manuscripts. In the Book of Revelation, on the other hand, the character of the text of Sinaiticus is distinctly inferior to that of codex Alexandrinus of the following century. In Plate 14, col. a, lines 24 f., the original reading has been corrected to (Luke 24:27); line 32, corrected to (24:28); col. b, line i, to (24:31); line 2, after , the words (omitted by the scribe) have been added in the margin by a later corrector; col. c, line 14, ' i s corrected to (24:41); line i from bottom, corrected to (24:49); col. d, line 16, after the corrector has inserted an arrow, which is repeated in the upper margin followed by the words (24:51). The Plate shows the page slightly reduced in size.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Photographic facsimile of the New and Old Testaments, by Helen and Kirsopp Lake, Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus . . . 2 vols., N.T. 1911, O.T. 1922 (Oxford), with Introduction by K. Lake; H. J. M. Milne and T. C. Skeat, Scribes and Correctors of the Codex Sinaiticus (British Museum, 1938); T. C. Skeat, 'The Lilies of the Field,' Zeitschrift fur die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, xxxvii (1938), pp. 211-4; Christian Tindall, ed. by T. B. Smith, Contributions to the Statistical Study of the Codex Sinaiticus (Edinburgh and London, 1961) [statistics based on the number of letters in the 552 columns of N.T. text; author's conclusions to be used with caution; cf. J. Duplacy in Recherches de science religieuse, 1 (1962), pp. 260 ff.]; Gordon P. Fee, 'Codex Sinaiticus in the Gospel of John: a Contribution to Methodology in Establishing Textual Relationships,' New Testament Studies, xv (196869), pp. 22-44 [in John, up to 8:38, « is Western, not Alexandrian].
14
15. Joshua 11:9-16. Rahlfs G (Codex Colberto-Sarravianus). iv/v cent. LEIDEN, UNIVERSITY LIBRARY, Voss. GR. Q8, FOL. 109 RECTO. Parchment codex, containing the Octateuch (with lacunae), iv/v century, 9^6 X 9^6 inches (25 X 23 cm.), comprising 153 leaves, 130 at Leiden, 22 at Paris (Bibliotheque Nationale, Gr. 17), and one at Leningrad (Public Library, Gr. 3), two columns, 27 lines to a column. The title of the codex perpetuates the names of earlier owners of the Paris and Leiden portions; the former belonged to Jean Baptiste Colbert, finance minister and chief adviser of Louis XIV, and the latter to Claude Sarrave of Paris, from whose hands the folios passed eventually into the possession of the University of Leiden. A new paragraph is indicated by extending the initial letter (which is not enlarged) into the left-hand margin. In order to make the right-hand margin as even as possible, the scribe (a) uses a horizontal line to indicate final nw, (b) writes one or more letters very small, (c) combines eta with the preceding or following letter (see Fig. 6), and/or (d) frequently uses /cat-compendium. Occasionally a rough breathing mark is added by one or another corrector (of whom Tischendorf identified seven). The three most important are (A) a contemporary hand, (B) another fifthcentury hand that revised Deuteronomy and Judges, and (C) a hand of the sixth century which has been busy in the text of Numbers. Codex G is noteworthy as being the oldest and best witness to an Origenic text that retains many of the Hexaplaric signs (see §22).
TRANSCRIPTION OF PLATE 15
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Vetus Testamentum Graece, Codicis Sarraviani-Colberti quae supersunt in Bibliothecis Leidensi Part-
ensi Petropolitana phototypice edita. Praefatus est Henricus Omont (Leiden, 1897).
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15
i6. Mark 16:12-17. Gregory-Aland W (Codex Washingtonianus). iv/v cent. WASHINGTON, FREER GALLERY OF ART, COD. 06.274, PAGE 371. Parchment codex, containing the four Gospels (except Mark 15:13-38, John 14:25-16:7) in the so-called Western order (Matthew, John, Luke, Mark), late iv or (more probably) early v century, average size of leaves 8J/6 X 5-^ inches (20.8 X 14.3 cm.), 187 leaves, one column, 30 lines to the page. Codex W is the work of two scribes; the first quire of John (1:1-5:11) is in a different hand, with a different system of punctuation and on a different kind of parchment, from that of the rest of the manuscript. The writing of the major portion of the manuscript is a graceful, sloping uncial of small size. It was evidently written with ease and rapidity. The letters p and v are usually about twice the height, and 0 and l/ nearly three times the height of the other letters. The other scribe was a less-practised penman, whose letters vary a little more in size and shape, and the line is followed less carefully. A remarkable feature of codex W is the lack of homogeneity in its text. In Matthew and part of Luke (8:13-24:53) the text is of the common Byzantine variety; in Mark 1:1-5:30 it is Western, resembling the Old Latin; Mark 5:31-16:20 is Caesarean, akin to p45; and Luke 1:1-8:12 and John 5:12-21:25 are Alexandrian. The text of John 1:1-5:11, which fills a quire that was added about the seventh century, presumably to replace one which was damaged, is a mixed text with some Alexandrian and a few Western readings. The stratification of text is matched by similar variations in paragraphing. According to Sanders, this variegation is to be explained by the theory that the codex is derived from a patchwork ancestor made up of fragments from different manuscripts pieced together after the attempt made by the Emperor Diocletian in 303 to crush Christianity by destroying its sacred books. One of the most noteworthy of the variant readings in codex W is a remarkable addition near the close of the Gospel according to Mark (following 16:14), Part °f which was known to Jerome, who declares that it was present 'in certain copies and especially in Greek codices.'1 The logion, which is doubtless of apocryphal origin, comprises lines 9-24 of the Plate. Transcription
Translation And they excused themselves, saying, 'This age of lawlessness and unbelief is under Satan, who does not allow the truth and power of God to prevail over the unclean things of the spirits.3 Therefore reveal thy righteousness now'—thus they spoke to Christ. And Christ replied to them, 'The term of years for Satan's power has been fulfilled, but other terrible things draw near. And for those who have sinned I was delivered over to death, that they may return to the truth and sin no more; that they may inherit the spiritual and incorruptible glory of righteousness which is in heaven.'
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Caspar Ren6 Gregory, Das Freer-Logion (Leipzig, 1908); Henry A. Sanders, Facsimile of the Washington Manuscript of the Four Gospels in the Freer Collection (Ann Arbor, 1912); idem, The New Testament Manuscripts in the Freer Collection; Part I, The Washington Manuscript of the Four Gospels (New York, 1912); B. H. Streeter, 'W and the Caesarean Text,' The Four Gospels, 2nd impression (London, 1926), pp. 598-600; Eugen Helzle, 'Der Schluss der Markusevangeliums und das Freer-Logion (Mk. 16, 14 W),' Dissertation, Tubingen, 1959 [cf. Theologische Literaturzeitung, 1960, cols. 470 f.]; and Larry Weir Hurtado, 'Codex Washingtonianus in the Gospel of Mark; its Textual Relationships and Scribal Characteristics,' Ph.D. diss., Case Western Reserve Univ., 1973.
1 Cf. B. M. Metzger, 'St. Jerome's Explicit References to Variant Readings in Manuscripts of the New Testament,' Text and Interpretation; Studies in the New Testament Presented to Matthew Black, ed. by Ernest Best and R. McL. Wilson (Cambridge, 1979), pp. I79~9°2 Or, who does not allow what lies under the unclean spirits to understand the truth and power of God.
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16
17. Deuteronomy 10:6-15. Rahlfs W (Sanders 9). v cent. WASHINGTON, FREER GALLERY OF ART, COD. WASH, i, PAGE 35. Parchment codex, containing Deuteronomy and Joshua, v century, 12 X IO.HJ inches (30.6 X 25.8 cm.), 102 leaves, two columns, 31 lines to a column (the first three lines of Deuteronomy and the first two and the title of Joshua are in red ink). This is one of four manuscripts bought in 1906 by Mr. Charles L. Freer, an industrialist of Detroit, from a dealer in Gizah, near Cairo. It was subsequently given to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. The codex is written on fairly thick parchment, which has wrinkled and hardened with age and exposure. At the bottom the leaves are somewhat decayed, but only in the case of three leaves has this decay extended to the text. The codex consists of fourteen quires numbered in the upper right-hand corner of the first page of each with the numbers AZ to N (37 to 60). The preceding portion presumably contained Genesis through Numbers. The writing is an upright square uncial of good size. Occasionally the letter tau is taller than other letters (e.g. col. a, line i, and col. b, line 2). As is the case with other examples of 'Biblical uncial,' the scribe's pen makes relatively thick lines vertically but relatively slender lines horizontally. The central stroke of epsilon terminates in a thickening. Paragraph or chapter divisions are indicated by an enlarged letter set out in the left-hand margin. Punctuation by the first hand is a single dot in the middle (or slightly above middle) position. The scribe is quite haphazard in employing punctuation, and it is often omitted if a vacant space occurs at the end of a line. There are no accent marks, though an apostrophe sometimes occurs after words ending in any consonant except v and s. It is used most frequently after proper names (e.g. col. a, lines 2 and 3 after [twice]; col. b, line 9 after the contraction f o r a s well as to indicate elision (col. b, line u ). A somewhat later hand (the editor attributes it to the end of the sixth or the beginning of the seventh century) added in cursive script the directives for ecclesiastical lections. On the page shown in the Plate, opposite line 7 from the bottom of col. b stands the abbreviation for indicating that the Scripture lesson begins with in the line to the right (Deut. 10:14!?.). In the upper margin stands the staurogram,1 followed by the directive (for ')> 'to the memory of the holy fathers, for the evening reading.' The Plate shows the page slightly reduced in size. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry A. Sanders, A Facsimile Edition qf the Washington Manuscript of Deuteronomy and Joshua
(Ann Arbor, 1910); idem, The Old Testament Manuscripts in the Freer Collection (New York, 1917).
1
The staurogram, which is a contraction of the Greek word oraupfc, occurs as early as A.D. 200 (in p' and p76). Along with the Christogram (chi-rho monogram; see description of Plate 35), the staurogram came into widespread usage in Greek, Latin, and Coptic; cf. Erich Dinkier, Signum Crucis (Tubingen, 1967), pp. 177 f.; Kurt Aland, 'Bemerkungen zum Alter und zur Entstehung des Christogrammes,' Studien zur Uberlieferung des Neuen Testamentes und seines Textes (Berlin, 1967), pp. 173-9; and Wolfgang Wischmeyer, 'Christogramm und Staurogramm in den lateinischen Inschriften altkirchlicher Zeit,' Theologia Crucis—Signum Crucis; Festschrift Jur Erich Dinkier, ed. by Carl Andresen and Giihter Klein (Tubingen, 1979), pp. 539-50. 84
17
18. Mark 9:2-29. Gregory-Aland A (Codex Alexandrinus). v cent. LONDON, BRITISH LIBRARY, ROYAL I.D.v-vm, VOL. iv, FOL. 36 VERSO. Vellum codex of the Bible (now bound in four volumes), with lacunae, v century, i2^i X 10^ inches (32 X 26.3 cm.), 773 leaves (279+238-4-118 in O.T. vols.; 144 in N.T. vol.), two columns, generally 49-51 lines to a column. This codex was sent as a gift to James I of England by Cyril Lucar, Patriarch successively of Alexandria (1602-1621) and Constantinople (1621-1638).* It did not, however, reach Britain till 1627, after the succession of Charles I. A collation of the New Testament was made for the London Polyglot Bible (1657) by Alexander Huish, Prebendary of Wells. The Old Testament includes (in addition to the usual books of Greek Bibles) 3 and 4 Maccabees, Psalm 151, and (after the Psalter) the fourteen liturgical canticles, or Odes. The twelve Minor Prophets precede the Book of Isaiah. In the New Testament the Catholic Epistles precede the Pauline Epistles. At the close of the New Testament are appended the two Epistles of Clement. According to the table of contents, the Psalms of Solomon were originally included at the end of the manuscript, but these have been lost with the end of 2 Clement (after 12:4). The codex is written in a large, square uncial hand by two scribes (so Milne and Skeat, who dispute Kenyon's opinion that there were five scribes). There are no accent and breathing marks, except a few added by a later hand; but the punctuation (limited to a single point, usually high) is by the first hand. Except in the poetical books, which are written new sections are indicated by the use of enlarged ('capital') letters. The first letter of each paragraph, or, if the paragraph begins in the middle of a line, the first letter of the first complete line in it (e.g., col. a, lines 33, 45), is enlarged and projects into the left-hand margin. The Ammonian section and Eusebian canon numbers stand in the margins of the Gospels. Many corrections have been made in the manuscript, some of them by the original scribe and others by more recent hands. In line 30 of col. b of the page reproduced, the original reading was simply (9:24, as in p45 N B C* L W A ^ 28 700), but the corrector has inserted the p h r a s e b y writing in the margin, and in the next line by erasing and s u b s t i t u t i n g T h e corrected form of text agrees with D N X Y T B I I S ^ and the great majority of the minuscule manuscripts, on which the Textus Receptus depends. The type of text of Alexandrinus varies as to section in both Testaments: in the Gospels it is Byzantine; in the Acts and Epistles, Alexandrian, though with some Western readings; in the Apocalypse, and in several Old Testament books (so Jellicoe), it has the best text of all manuscripts. The Plate shows the page slightly reduced in size. BIBLIOGRAPHY: For a full description of the manuscript, see E. Maunde Thompson's introduction to his photographic facsimile edition (London, 1879-1883); a reduced photographic facsimile of the New Testament (and Epistles of Clement), with introduction by Frederic G. Kenyon, was published by the British
Museum in 1909; the Old Testament followed, in four parts, Octateuch, 1915; i Sam.-2 Chron., 1930; Hosea-Judith, 1936; i Esdras-Ecclus., 1957. For palaeographical details of codex Alexandrinus, see H. J. M. Milne and T. G. Skeat, Scribes and Correctors of the Codex Sinaiticus (London, 1938), Appendix ii.
1 See Matthew Spinka, 'Acquisition of the Codex Alexandrinus by England,' Review of Religion, xvi (1936), pp. 10-29.
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18
19- Luke 5:38-6:9. Gregory-Aland D (Codex Bezae). v cent. CAMBRIDGE, UNIVERSITY LIBRARY, NN.2.4I, FOLS. 205 VERSO AND 206 RECTO. Bilingual parchment codex, containing the Gospels in the so-called Western order (Matthew, John, Luke, Mark),1 a small portion of 3 John (in Latin),2 and Acts, the Greek text standing on the left-hand page, the Latin on the right-hand page, v century,3 10% x Q^i inches (26 X 21 cm.), 510 leaves, one column with text written in cola, 33 lines to a page, the first three lines of each book in red ink. In 1562 Theodore de Beze, the French reformer of Geneva, acquired from the loot of the monastery of St. Irenaeus at Lyon the famous codex which now bears his name. A few years earlier it had been taken to the Council of Trent by William a Prato (Guillaume du Prat), Bishop of Clermont in Auvergne, and used there in 1546 as evidence for several unique or unusual Greek readings relating to matters under debate by members of the council. While the manuscript was in Italy a friend made a list of more than 350 noteworthy variant readings, which were communicated to Robert Estienne (Stephanus), the famous Parisian printer and editor, who incorporated them with variant readings of other manuscripts in his 1550 Greek New Testament, the first printed edition to have a critical apparatus. From here several were represented in the margin of the Geneva Bible of I56o.4 In 1581 the manuscript was presented to the Library of Cambridge University. J. R. Harris and J. H. Ropes, following J. J. Wettstein, have called attention to latinizing corruptions in the Greek text due to influence from the adjoining Latin. There is, however, no generally accepted view of the nature of the relation of the two texts, for, though they present many features of similarity, they are by no means identical (Scrivener found 2000 divergencies between the Greek and the Latin). The result is that D can neither be rejected as secondary, contaminated with corruptions from the Latin, nor yet used as in every respect a trustworthy witness, as it stands, to the Western text. A striking characteristic of D is the frequent harmonization of parallel passages, which often do not agree with similar harmonizations of the Byzantine text. The place of'origin of the codex has long been debated. The south of France, where it was found; southern Italy, where both Greek and Latin were current; and Sicily, where Latin was the official language, but the mass of people continued to speak Greek—each of these places has been urged with more or less persuasive arguments. The codex, which is badly written, seems to be the work of one scribe. On the Greek side he is guilty of many obvious blunders and misspellings on nearly every page; at the same time, his ignorance of Latin is also extraordinary. Scrivener detected the work of nine correctors, ranging from the sixth to the eleventh or twelfth century. A variety of comments and glosses, often written in a scrawl, stand in the margins of many pages; they include not only section numbers and but also, written by a later hand in the lower margins of the Gospel of Mark, a series of sixty-nine brief sentences or comments, used, it appears, for divination or telling fortunes (sortes sanctorum)? 3 Codex Bezae has been variously dated: to the vi century (Tischendorf, Gregory, von Soden, Nestle, Bover, Merk, Aland in Kurzgejasste Liste, 1963); to the v century (Burkitt, Souter, Ropes, Lake, Kenyon, Hatch, Aland in Nestle-Aland JVT26, 1979); to the early v century (E. A. Lowe, Codices Latini Antiquiores, ii, and ed.); to the iv century (P. Mallon, H. J. Frede). * Cf. B. M. Metzger, 'Codex Bezae and the Genevan Version of the English Bible,' Historical and Literary Studies (Leiden and Grand Rapids, 1968), pp. 138-44. s Cf. J. Rendel Harris, Codex Bezae (Cambridge, 1891), pp. 9-11, and Otto Stegmuller, 'Zu den Bibelorakeln im Codex Bezae,' Biblica, xxxiv (1953), pp. 13-22. See also Harris, 'The 'Sortes Sanctorum' in the St. Germain Codex,' American Journal of Philology, ix (1888), pp. 58-63.
1 On the basis of palacographic and other considerations, Chapman thought it probable that an ancestor of codex Bezae had the Gospels in the order Matthew, Mark, John, and Luke, the same sequence as in the Curetonian Syriac manuscript and in Mommsen's Cheltenham list of canonical books (see John Chapman, 'The Order of the Gospels in the Parent of Codex Bezae,' %eitschrift fur die neutestamentlichen Wissenschaft, vi 2[i905], PP- 339-46). According to Chapman the text of the Book of Revelation and of i, 2, and 3 John would just fill the space (66 leaves) between the end of Mark and the last verses (still extant) of 3 John (see John Chapman, 'The Original Contents of Codex Bezae,' The Expositor, Sixth series, xii [1905], pp. 46-53).
88
CODEX BEZAE
89
Textually, no known New Testament manuscript contains so many distinctive readings, chiefly the free addition (and occasional omission) of words, sentences, and even incidents. Thus, in Luke chap. 6 this manuscript has ver. 5 after ver. 10, and between verses 4 and 6 it puts into the mouth of Jesus a warning against thoughtless transgression of the Sabbath commandment. The agraphon, not otherwise transmitted, reads, 'When on the same day he [Jesus] saw a man doing work on the Sabbath, he said to him, 'Man, if you know what you are doing, you are blessed; but if you do not know, you are accursed and a transgressor of the law' ' (the Greek text is shown in lines 16-20: At the top of the page shown in the Greek Plate stands the belonging to the section of text marked MA ( = 41), namely (retaining the scribe's orthography), ('Concerning David when he went into the sanctuary and ate the bread of the Presence'). In both Plates are traces of writing showing through the parchment from the opposite side of the leaf. The hole in the left-hand leaf was present prior to receiving writing, which is carefully adjusted around it. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Transcription, F. H. [A.] Scrivener, Bezae Codex Cantabrigiensis (Cambridge, 1864; reprinted by the Pickwick Press, Pittsburgh, 1978); J. Rendel Harris, Codex Bezae (Cambridge, 1891); photographic reproduction, Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis . . . phototypice repraesentatus (Cambridge, 1899); J. R. Har-
ris, The Annotations of Codex Bezae (with some Notes on Sortes Sanctorum) (London, 1901); James H. Ropes, The Text of Acts (London, 1926), pp. Ivi-lxxxiv; Albert C. Clark, The Acts oj the Apostles (Oxford, 1933), pp. 173220; and James D. Yoder, Concordance to the Distinctive Greek Text of Codex Bezae (Leiden, 1961).
19A
19B
2O. Genesis 39:9-18. Rahlfs L (Vienna Genesis), v/vi cent. VIENNA, NATIONALBIBLIOTHEK, THEOL. GR. 31, FOL. 31. The Vienna Genesis is a handsome illuminated purple parchment manuscript of the v/vi century, consisting today of 24 leaves, 13^ X o% inches (35 X 26 cm.), with 48 water-color miniatures in the classical style. Each page contains one or more pictures and the Greek text of Genesis (sometimes abbreviated to provide more space for the picture), written in well-formed uncials with silver ink, which here and there has eaten through the parchment. Initial t and v have the diaeresis. Nomina sacra occur (e.g. end of line 3). To save space at the end of a line the scribe uses ligatures, e.g. writing with the first three letters in ligature (line 5) and the last two letters of in ligature (line 6). The Kcu-compendium occurs at the end of line 11. This fragmentary manuscript, one of the chief specimens of early Christian book illumination, was probably designed to contain two hundred illustrations, though only forty-eight survive today. It is the work of several master-craftsmen, two of whom had apprentices working under them. The provenance of the artists is uncertain, but there are notes in the manuscript which show that in the fourteenth century it was at Venice. In 1664 it was acquired by the Imperial Library in Vienna. The Plate depicts the episode of the temptation of Joseph by Potiphar's wife. Dressed in a diaphanous garment, the temptress sits on the edge of a gilded bed before a double-rowed collonade, suggesting a stately palace chamber. She is grasping the edge of Joseph's mantle, while he is attempting to leave. In the next scene Joseph, without the mantle, is looking back at the open door through which he has just escaped. The other scenes portray extra-Biblical, legendary accretions to the Joseph-cycle. The figure at the top right in a star-studded mantle and holding a spindle has been explained as an astrologer. The woman bending over the cradle and holding a rattle may be once more Potiphar's wife; the baby has been thought, on the basis of Jewish traditions, to be Osnath (Asenath in Greek), an adopted daughter whom Joseph will later marry. Less surely identified are the figures in the lower register: a woman holding a naked baby and two seated women spinning, the one on the right clad like Potiphar's wife in the first scene. The two trees can be dismissed as 'space fillers.' The Plate shows the page slightly reduced in size. 401-15, trans, into English, 'The Question of the Influence of Jovvish Pictorial Sources in Old Testament Illustrations,' Studies in Classical and Byzantine Manuscript Illumination, ed. by Herbert L. Kessler (Chicago, 1971), pp. 75-95; and Michael D. Levin, 'Some Jewish Sources for the Vienna Genesis,' The Art Bulletin, liv (1972), pp. 241-4.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Facsimile editions by Wilhelm Ritter von Hartel and Franz Wickhoff, Die Wiener Genesis (Vienna/Prague/Leipzig, 1895), and by Hans Gerstinger, Die Wiener Genesis (Vienna, 1931); Kurt Weitzmann, 'Zur Frage des Einflusses jiidischer Bilderquellen auf die Illustration des Alten Testamentes,' Mullus; Festschrift Theodor Klauser (Miinster/W., 1964), pp.
92
20
21. Isaiah 1313-10. Rahlfs Q (Codex Marchalianus). vi cent. ROME, BIBLIOTECA VATICANA, GR. 2125, PAGE 205. Parchment codex of the Old Testament prophets (the minor prophets precede the others), vi cent., 11^ X 7 .Hi inches (29.5 X 17.9 cm.), 416 leaves, one column, 29 lines to the page. One of the most important manuscripts for Septuagint studies, codex Marchalianus (its name is derived from a former owner, Rene Marchal)1 is written in a bold uncial of the so-called Coptic style (see §15). The letters r and v have serifs; 0 and u are dilated. The circumflex accent is often placed medially over diphthongs (e.g. lines 11 and 14 [twice], but not line 21). The margins contain a variety of 'helps for the reader' derived from the researches of Origen. About seventy items of an onomasticum (lexicon of proper names; see §32) stand in the margins of Ezekiel and Lamentations.2 Of greater importance are the Hexaplaric readings (see §22) found on most pages; these are written in tiny uncials by a hand not much later than the original scribe, and are keyed by a short wavy line standing over the designated word in the text. Prefixed to these readings are a', a-', 6', signifying Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion respectively. Collectively the three versions are identified as oi 7 (or sometimes simply 7). Of the Hexaplaric sigla, only the asterisk occurs on the page reproduced (line 3 from bottom). A noteworthy feature in some of the books is the representation of the Tetragrammaton written in the inner margin in Greek letters (iriiri, see §20). This symbol is keyed by a short wavy line that is repeated in the text near the contraction of (lines 8, n, 13, and 22). The following is a transcription of the Hexaplaric readings that stand in the inner and outer margins of page 205, linked in each case by a conventional mark to words within the line: line 4 line 7 line 11 line 18 line 22 line 27 line 28 Above in line i a subsequent scribe added from the Latin Vulgate the word mandavi ('I have commanded'). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Facsimile edition, Prophetarum codex Graecus Vaticanus 2125 . . . heliotypice editus curante losepho Cozza-Luzi (Rome, 1890); a companion volume with commentary by Antonio Ceriani was pub-
lished the same year with the title De codice Marchaliano seu Vaticano Graeco 2125 . . . The full title of each volume is given in H. B. Swete's edition of the Septuagint, iii, p. viii n. 3.
1
Marchal obtained the manuscript from the Abbey of St. Denis near Paris. From the library of Marchal it passed into the hands of Cardinal Rochefoucauld, who in turn presented it to the College de Clermont, the celebrated Jesuit house at Paris. Finally, in 1785 it was purchased for the Vatican Library, where it now reposes. J Cf. Erich Klostermann, 'Onomasticum Marchalianum,' ^eitschriftfur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, xxiii (1903), PP- 135-40. 94
21
22. Acts 8:36-38. Gregory-Aland E (Codex Laudianus). vi/vii ce OXFORD, BODLEIAN LIBRARY, LAUD. 35, FOL. 70 VERSO. Parchment codex, containing the Book of Acts1 in Latin and Greek, vi/vii century, 10^ X inches (27 X 22 cm.), 227 leaves, two columns, 23-26 lines to a colum An inscription on a fly-leaf at the end indicates that at some time after A.D. 534 the codex w in Sardinia, an island on which Greek and Latin elements met. It next turns up in the north England, where the Venerable Bede2 used it in the compilation of his commentary on Acts ( tween 709 and 716). Given soon after among other precious books to Boniface, when he star on his mission to the Continent, it was probably later transferred by him to Burchard, when Bo face consecrated him Bishop of Wiirzburg (Bavaria). In 1631 during the Thirty Years' War, Wu burg was captured by the Swedes, and subsequently this manuscript among others was acqui from the Swedish army by agents of Archbishop Laud, who in due course, as Chancellor of Oxf University, presented it to the Bodleian Library (1636 The manuscript is written in very large, thick, and clumsy-looking uncials, without punctuati accents, or breathings, except that iota and upsilon are often written with diaeresis (lines 2, 3, 1 The shape of xi (e.g. line 11) is more complicated than usual. The alteration of light and dark ters suggests that the scribe frequently needed to dip his pen into the in The parchment is of fair quality and often very thin, so that often the writing on the oppo side shows through the sheet. The Latin version occupies the place of honor in the left-hand colu on each page. The text of both columns is arranged colometrically with very short , wh often contain but a single word, and rarely as many as three or four.3 A peculiar chapter-divisi containing fifty-eight chapters up to 26:24, nas been added by a corrector of the seventh centu Textually E has basically an Antiochian, or Byzantine, type of text with a sizeable number Western readings. It was formerly held that the Latin text had been accommodated to the Gre but Ropes and Clark maintain that the more striking Greek Western readings are due to retra lation from the Old Latin Codex Laudianus is the earliest known copy of Acts that contains 8:37, the Ethiopian eunuc confession of faith: (lines 7-19). passage is absent from p45 p74 N A B C 33 81 614 vg syrP-h cop sa>bo eth, but present, with many mi variations, in many minuscules copG67 arm. There is no reason why scri should have omitted the confession if it had originally stood in the text. On the other hand, its sertion into the text seems to have been due to the feeling that Philip could not have baptized Ethiopian without securing a confession of faith, which needed to be expressed in the narrati BIBLIOGRAPHY: Edited by C. Tischendorf, Codex LaudiThe Acts of the Apostles (Oxford, 1933), pp. 234 anus (Monumenta sacra inedita, novae collectionis aand O. Kenneth Walther, 'Codex Laudianus G 35 pendix, ix; Leipzig, 1870); James H. Ropes, 'The Re-Examination of the Manuscript, Including a Greek Text of Codex Laudianus,' Harvard Theological production of the Text and an Accompanying C Review, xvi (1923), pp. 175-86; idem, The Text of Acts mentary,' unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of (London, 1926), pp. Ixxxiv-lxxxviii; Albert C. Clark, Andrews, 1979.
1
The manuscript lacks the last seven or eight leaves, which contained Acts 26:29-28:2 In his essay Expositio Retracta Bede gives seventy and more readings, all of which are in this manuscript, and o only in this. The manuscript must have been complete when Bede used it, for he cites the Latin of 27:5 and 28 See M. L. W. Laistner, 'The Latin Versions of Acts Known to the Venerable Bede,' Harvard Theological Review, 0937). PP- 37~5°» esp. 43-9 3 It is probable that the manuscript was copied from a bilingual predecessor constructed in the same manner, on several occasions a line or lines at the foot of a page are repeated at the beginning of the next page in the sa formation. < In the Latin column (line 13) a corrector expunged the first four letters of suscepis (which represented cfcc found in other Greek witnesses), and wrote in the left margin salvus (the remaining letters of suscepis were understo as eris (Latin p taken as Greek p). a
96
22
23. John 4:47-5:6. Gregory-Aland 047. viii cent. PRINCETON, UNIVERSITY LIBRARY, GARRETT MS. i, FOL. 131 RECTO. Parchment codex, containing the four Gospels, viii century, 8 X 6>fi inches (20.3 X 15.4 cm.), 152 leaves, one column, 37 or 38 lines written in the form of a cross. The manuscript was formerly in the monastery (Skete) of St. Andrew on Mount Athos. It was brought to the United States by T, Whittemore, purchased in 1924 by Robert Garrett of Baltimore, and given by him to Princeton University Library in 1942. Manuscripts with cruciform text throughout are uncommon; two others are Greek lectionaries, one of the eleventh century in the British Library (cod. add. 39603; Gregory-Aland 7233), and the other of the thirteenth century in the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York (cod. M6ga; Gregory-Aland /i635). A little-known Gospel lectionary of the twelfth century in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection (cod. i; Gregory-Aland /2139) is written partly in double-columns and partly in cruciform format. The upper margin contains the (in red ink) for the seventh
Near the close of line 19 of the text stands the abbreviation of riXos (in red ink), signifying the close of the sixth In the left-hand margin op Z (in red ink) signifies the beginning of the seventh cuov (John 5:1-15), to which the at the top of the page applies. In the Greek lectionary system this passage is appointed to be read on the third Sunday after Easter, which is identified as either or In the line following the the scribe combines both to produce the curious directive 'for the third Sunday of the third week' (also spelling the abbreviation for week with 4u6, which in some dialects was pronounced like i/38). A subsequent scribe marked the text of lines 27-33 (John 5:4) with asterisks in the left-hand margin, indicating that the passage is doubtful or spurious. A number of early and good witnesses omit the passage, including p68 p78 N B C* D WBU«>P 33, as well as several early versions; more than twenty other Greek manuscripts mark the passage with asterisks or obeli (including S A II 1079 2174).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Artistic features of the manuscript are discussed in Illuminated Greek Manuscripts from American Collections, ed. Gary Vikan (Princeton, 1973), P- 57-
24. Mark 16:2-11. Gregory-Aland ^. viii/ix cent. MOUNT ATHOS, LAURA 172 (B' 52), FOL. 14 VERSO. Parchment codex, containing part of Mark (9:5-16:20), Luke, John, Acts, Catholic Epistles,1 and Pauline Epistles (including Hebrews, though lacking one leaf), viii/ix century, 8^ X 6 inches (21 X 15.3 cm.), 261 leaves, one column, 30 and 31 lines to a page. Written in a typical hand of the eighth and ninth centuries, the scribe enlarges letters that begin a new section, and extends them, when possible, into the left-hand margin. Accents and square breathing marks are used throughout. The Ammonian section and Eusebian canon numbers stand in the margin, and the abbreviation of rkos, marking the close of a liturgical lesson, appears within the text itself (e.g., end of line 17, after Mark 16:8). Besides punctuation involving high, middle, and low points, the text is also furnished with neumes. After Mark 16:8 the manuscript agrees with several other Greek and versional witnesses (including L 099 0112 274TO|t 579 /i6o2 syr h (m*) cop •» <'>••>• b° (m'> eth m ™) 2 in providing the shorter ending of the Gospel before the longer ending (16:9-20). Following
y&p (16:8) and the abbreviation of riXos, the manuscript continues (line 18):
Following the shorter ending, a heading (lines 25-26) states that after the words there is also current the ending beginning which are the opening words of the longer ending of Mark (16:9-20). At the conclusion of the longer ending (on the next page) stands the subscription In the lower left-hand margin is a liturgical rubric stating that the reading is for Easter morning, , In the righthand margin are smudges from the Ammonian section and Eusebian canon numbers that stand in the left-hand margin of the facing page.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kirsopp Lake, 'Texts from Mount Athos,' Studio Biblica et Ecclesiastics, v (Oxford, 1903), pp. 89-185, esp. 94-131; Hermann von Soden, Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments in ihrer dltesten erreichbaren Textgestalt, I, iii (Berlin, 1910), pp. 1664-6, 1841, 1921, and 1928; M.-J. Lagrange, La critique rationnelle (Paris, 1935), pp. 109 f. 1
The Epistle of James comes next after 2 Peter. For the evidence of the Ethiopic version, see B. M. Metzger's New Testament Studies, Philological, Versional, and Patristic (Leiden, 1980), pp. 127-47. 1
a 'But they reported briefly to Peter and those with him all that they had been told. And after this Jesus himself also appeared; he sent out through them, from the east even to the west, the sacred and imperishable proclamation of eternal salvation. Amen.'
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23
25- Matthew 27:16-23. Gregory-Aland 0 (Koridethi Codex), ix cent. ? TIFLIS, INST. RUKOP., GR. 28, FOL. 67 VERSO. Parchment codex, containing the four Gospels (with a few lacunae in Matthew), generally attributed to the ix century (though Lake declared, 'This MS. cannot be dated because no other specimen of the same kind of writing has ever been found'1), 1 1 X 9 inches (28 X 23 cm.), 249 leaves, two columns, 19-32 lines to a column. The manuscript once belonged to a monastery in Koridethi in the ancient country of Lazoi, located at the eastern end of the Black Sea, not very far from Batum. It came to the attention of the scholarly world about the. middle of the nineteenth century, but later that century it fell out of sight for about thirty years. In 1901 it was rediscovered by Bishop Kirion in the treasure-room of St. Andrew's Cathedral in Kutais. Bishop Kirion brought the manuscript to Tiflis. The physiognomy of codex Koridethi is rustic. The script gives the impression that the scribe drew rather than wrote his letters, which vary considerably in size. Furthermore, the letters are sometimes on the line, sometimes pendant from the line, and sometimes the line runs through the letters. The scribe was probably a Georgian not very familiar with Greek. On the inner-side of the back cover is an inscription written with Greek and several Georgian and, as some have (erroneously) thought, Coptic letters; it is the text Heb. 10:7 ( = Ps. 40:7), 'In the head of the book it is written about me to do thy will.' What is the character of the text of this unusual manuscript? In Matthew, Luke, and John the text is frequently similar to the type of text in most Byzantine manuscripts (though occasionally it presents notable readings), but in Mark it is quite different. Here it is akin to the type of text that Origen and Eusebius used in the third and fourth centuries at Caesarea. A remarkable reading occurs at Matt. 27:16, 17 (Plate 25, col. a, lines 4 and 11), where the Koridethi manuscript has Pilate ask the crowds whether he should release Jesus Bar Rabbas (fN BAp pABBAN) or Jesus who is called the Christ. Several other witnesses (i*, 118, 209, 241*, 299**, 700*, 1582 syr8- p*1 arm geo2) also insert The tenth-century uncial manuscript S (Plate 31) and about twenty minuscule manuscripts contain a marginal note stating that in very ancient manuscripts Barabbas is called Jesus; in one of these the note is attributed to Origen. Since Origen himself calls attention to the variant reading in his Commentary on Matthew (in loc.),2 the reading must be of great antiquity. From the standpoint of transcriptional probability, in ver. 17 the word 'Irjvovv could have been accidentally either added or deleted by scribes owing to the presence of vpiv before it In support of the reading with as original in both verses are the following considerations: (a) the double name adds point to the passage ('Whom shall I release to you? Jesus Barabbas or Jesus who is called the Christ?'); (b) Although scribes would have had no reason deliberately to add the name, it may well have been suppressed from reverential motives; (c) the reading rdv before in B and 1010 appears to presuppose the presence of in an ancestor of these two manuscripts. On the other hand, in support of the traditional reading are such considerations as (a) the evidence of nearly all Greek manuscripts, including the best, and of nearly all versions; (b) the fact that even the few witnesses that prefix 'Jesus' to Barabbas in verses 16 and 17 do not do so in verses 20, 21, and 26, where one might expect to find it repeated; (c) no trace of any such reading is found in any text of Mark, Luke, or John. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Facsimile edition of the text of Mark, Materialypo Arkheologii Kavkaza . . ., xi (Moscow, 1907); transcription of the entire text in Gustav Beermann and Caspar Ren6 Gregory, Die Koridethi Evangelien 6 038 (Leipzig, 1913); Kirsopp Lake and Robert P.
Blake, 'The Text of the Gospels and the Koridethi Codex,' Harvard Theological Review, xvi (1923), pp. 26786; J. de Zwaan, 'No Coptic in the Koridethi Codex , ibid., xviii (1925), pp. 112-4; cf. Blake's 'Rejoinder,' ibid., p. 114.
1
K. Lake, The Text of the New Testament, 6th ed. (London, 1928), p. 19. Cf. B. M. Metzger, 'Explicit References in the Works of Origen to Variant Readings in New Testament Manuscripts,' Historical and Literary Studies (Leiden and Grand Rapids, 1968), pp. 88-103, esp. 94. 2
100
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26. Mark 1:1-6. Gregory-Aland 461 (Uspenski Gospels). A.D. 835. LENINGRAD, STATE PUBLIC LIBRARY, GR. 219, PAGE 100. Parchment codex, containing the four Gospels, dated A.D. 835, 6# X 4J^ inches (16.7 X 10.7 cm.), 344 leaves, one column, 19 lines to a page. This, the earliest dated minuscule Greek manuscript (see §16), was formerly in the Monastery of Mar Saba in Palestine; later it belonged to Bishop Porfiri Uspenski of Kiev. It is written in a small, upright hand. The writing is on the ruled lines at the top and middle of a column, and pendant from the bottom line. In order to indicate new sections the scribe brings the text of the first full line of the section into the left-hand margin. Ligatures combine consecutive letters as well as, occasionally, separate words. The heading of each Gospel and the lection notes are written in uncials. The colophon at the end of the text (fol. 344 verso), written in the same hand and ink, provides the date of the manuscript and the name of the scribe:
This
Nicolaus has been plausibly identified with the monk of that name who later became the second abbot of the Studion monastery at Constantinople, and who may have written (so Diller thinks) another New Testament manuscript extant today (Gregory-Aland MS. K). The type of text is Byzantine (von Soden classifies it as A'1); the pericope de adultera, omitted by the original scribe, has been added in the margin by a much later hand. The liturgical note in the upper right-hand margin specifies that the passage (Mark i: i -8) is appointed to be read on the Sunday before the Feast of Lights (i.e. January 6):
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Cereteli, 'Wo ist das Tetraevangelism von Porphyrius Uspenskij aus dem Jahr 835 erstanden?' Byzantinische %eitschrift, ix (1900), pp. 649—53; T. W. Allen, 'The Origin ot the Greek Minuscule Hand,' Journal of Hellenic Studies, xl (1920), pp. 1-12; A. Diller, 'A Companion to the Uspenski Gospels' [Gregory-Aland MS. K], Byzantinische Zjeitschrift, xlix (1956), pp. 332-5. Cf. also Bp. Mikhail, 'Cetveroevangelie 891 goda,' Z/iurnal moskovskqj patriarkhii, xiv, 4 (1956), pp. 43-9, esp. p. 46 and the two plates, and L. P. Zukovskaja, Tekstologija ijazyk drevnejskich slavjanskich pamjatnikov (Moscow, 1976), who discusses the oldest Greek Gospel manuscripts found in Russia (pp. 234-41).
27. Psalm 72 [73]:i-io0. Rahlfsnoi (Khludov Psalter), ix cent. Moscow, HISTORICAL MUSEUM, COD. 129, FOL. 70 VERSO. Parchment codex, containing the Psalms, ix-century, 7-Hi X 5fi inches (19.4 X 14.5 cm.), 169 leaves, one column, about 23 lines to the page. In 1847 this richly illustrated Psalter, containing more than 200 miniatures, was brought by V. I. Grigorovic from Mount Athos to Moscow, where it eventually became the property of Alexei Ivanovic Khludov. Originally written during the ninth century in a beautiful uncial hand (see the caption in the left-hand margin of the Plate), in the twelfth century, the ink having became rather faint, the Scripture text was re-written with darker ink in contemporary minuscules. Here and there the under-writing is visible, detracting from the aesthetic qualities of the manuscript. Accent and breathing marks are supplied throughout; occasionally diaeresis stands over iota (lines 9, 18, 19). Among nomina sacra and occur in line i a n d i n line 20; there is an anomalous contraction of the plural of in lines i o and 11. The initial letter of each Psalm is considerably enlarged, and the initial letter of each verse is somewhat enlarged; they are written with
red ink, as is also the number of the Psalm (o/3 = 72 [Masoretic text 73]). A conventional sign (semi-circle and dot) above the upper picture, which shows two men falling headlong, is repeated at the beginning of line 8 over the last syllable of in the clause ('For there is no movement upward at their death'). The lower picture illustrates the text of lines 20-22 ('They set their mouth against heaven, and their tongue has gone about upon the earth'), which is interpreted with grotesque literalism, showing the mouths of the wicked gaping toward heaven (which is surmounted by a cross) and their tongues reaching to the earth. The caption, written by the original scribe and not re-written by a later scribe, reads The wavy, colored line above the caption is repeated in the text above thus correlating picture with text. The verses shown in the Plate agree with the printed text of Rahlfs except for ver. i, where instead of MS. noi agree with the reading of
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Facsimile edition (in full color), M. V. Schepkins, Miniatiury Khludovskol Psaltyri, grecheskit illiustriovanny! kodeks ix veka (Moscow, 'Q??); cf. J. J. Tikkanen, Die Psalter illustration im Mittelalter (Acta Societatis Fennicae, xxxi; Helsinki, 1895; reprinted, Soest, 1975), pp. i ff.
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28. I Corinthians 2:9-3:3. Gregory-Aland G (Codex Boernerianus). ix cent. DRESDEN, SACHISCHE LANDESBIBLIOTHEK, A 1456, FOL. 23 RECTO. Bilingual parchment codex, containing the Greek and Latin texts of the Pauline Epistles (without Hebrews), ix century, 9^ X 7M inches (25 X 19 cm.), 99 leaves, one column, 20 lines to the column. The manuscript was formerly the property of Christian Friedrich Borner, professor of theology at Leipzig, who purchased it in 1705. After the end of Philemon, and lower on the page, there stands the title with the Latin words standing above the Greek, ad Laudicenses incipit epistola, but neither that apocryphal epistle nor the Epistle to the Hebrews follows. The Greek uncials are coarse and peculiar. There are no breathing or accent marks. Capital letters are decorated with colored inks (yellow, red, pink). In these and in other respects codex Boernerianus resembles codex Sangallensis (A) of the Gospels,2 at one time thought to be the first portion of G. The text from which G was copied seems to have been arranged in for almost every line has at least one Greek capital letter. If the capital letters be assumed to commence the lines of the exemplar, the text divides itself into regular (see §23). Quotations from the Old Testament are indicated by marks placed in the left-hand margin (lines i and 14-15), and a Latin notation identifies the origin of a quotation (lesaia, opposite line 14). The Latin translation, which follows the Greek word for word, is written above the latter. The Latin text is for the most part the Vulgate, but here and there it has been conformed to the Greek. Occasionally a Greek word is supplied with alternative Latin renderings, connected with the word meaning 'or'; sometimes the two renderings are synonymns, sometimes one is a literal rendering followed by one congruent with Latin syntax (for an example of the latter kind, see line 3 from the bottom of the Greek text shown in the Plate, where is rendered vos t [ = vel vobis). There is no question that this manuscript was written in the west of Europe (very possibly in the monastery of St. Gall in northeast Switzerland, where codex A still remains) by some of the Irish monks who emigrated to those parts. At the foot of the page reproduced in the Plate are several lines of Irish verse which refer to making a pilgrimage to Rome:3 Teicht do r6im [t&cht do r6im] M6r saido becic torbai Inri chondaigi hifoss Manimbera latt ni fog bai.
To come to Rome, to come to Rome, Much of trouble, little of profit, The thing thou seekest here, If thou bring not with thee, thou findest not.
M6r bais m6r baile M6r coll ceille m6r rnise Olais aurchenn teicht doecaib Beith f6 6toil male Maire.
Great folly, great madness, Great ruin of sense, great insanity, Since thou has set out for death, That thou shouldest be in disobedience to the Son of Mary.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Facsimile edition, Der Codex Boernerianus der Briefe des Apostels Paulus . . ., mit einem Vorwort von Dr. Alexander Reichardt. . . (Leipzig, 1909); Wm. H. P. Hatch, 'On the Relationship of Codex
Augiensis and Codex Boernerianus of the Pauline Epistles,' Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Ix (1951), pp. 187-99; Hermann J. Frede, Altlateinische PaulusHandschriften (Freiburg, 1964), pp. 50-77.
1
Here aov standing to represent au shows that the Greek is derived from the Latin, not vice versa. » For a specimen of codex Sangallensis, see Plate XIII (a) in Metzger, The Text of the Mew Testament, and ed. (Oxford, 1968). 3 The transcription and translation are taken from F. H. A. Scrivener, A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament, 4th ed., i (London, 1894), p. 180, n. a.
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29. Luke 22:38-45. Gregory-Aland 892. ix (or x) cent. LONDON, BRITISH LIBRARY, ADD. 33277, FOL. 261 VERSO. 1
Parchment codex, containing the four Gospels, ix (or x) century, 6 X 4^6 inches (17.2 X 11.5 cm.), 353 leaves, one column, 20 lines to a page. The scribe of this manuscript was careful to preserve the line and page dimensions of its uncial ancestor. The scribe sometimes leaves the lower part of a page blank so that he may begin the next page in harmony with his copy. Square breathing marks are used throughout the Scripture text. The manuscript is furnished with lectionary equipment for both synaxarion and menologion (see §29). In the upper margin of the page shown in the Plate stands the rubric stating that the lesson (Luke 22:39-23:1) is for the third day of Cheese-Week (the week immediately preceding Lent), a n d that t h e incipit f o r t h e lesson i s T h e lesson begins i n line 2 at the place marked with the abbreviation of . _ , In line 5 the abbreviation of marks the close of the lesson for the preceding day (Luke 19:29-40; 22:7-39). The Ammonian section and Eusebian canon numbers stand in the left-hand margin. Textually, the manuscript contains many remarkable readings of an early type. In chap. 5 of Mark, for example, Harris found 35 readings in which 892 agrees with K 30 times, with B 29 times, with C 28 times, with A 27 times, and with D 12 times. Von Soden, on the basis of a more representative analysis of the manuscript, classified its text as Hesychian with a certain amount of influence from the Koine and Jerusalem types of text. On the page shown in the Plate the passage concerning the Bloody Sweat (Luke 22:43-44) is marked in the left-hand margin (lines 13 to 19) to signify that it is regarded as doubtful or spurious. Some ancient witnesses omit the verses entirely (p76 Na B T W syr* cop8a-bo armm88 geo Marcion Clement Origen al); in other manuscripts (family 13) the passage is transferred to follow Matt. 26:39. On the other hand, its presence in many manuscripts ( K * D L X A * 9 U*ty family i a/), as well as its citation by Justin, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Eusebius, and many other Fathers, is proof of the antiquity of the account. In the judgment of the editors of the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament, 'On the grounds of transcriptional probability it is less likely that the verses were deleted in several different areas of the church by those who felt that the account of Jesus overwhelmed with human weakness was incompatible with his sharing the divine omnipotence of the Father, than that they were added from an early source, oral or written, of extra-canonical traditions concerning the life and passion of Jesus.'2 BIBLIOGRAPHY: Collation by J. Rendel Harris, 'An Important MS of the New Testament,' Journal of Biblical Literature, ix (1890), pp. 31-59; Hermann von
1 2
Soden, Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments in ihrer dltesten erreichbaren Textgestalt, I, ii (Berlin, 1907), pp. 973-8.
John 10:6-12:18 and 14:23-21:35 are written on paper by a sixteenth-century hand. B. M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (London, 1971), p. 177.
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30. Psalm 27 [281:6-7. Rahlfs 1098. ix or x cent. MILAN, BIBLIOTECA AMBROSIANA, O 39 SUP., FOL. 105 RECTO AND 100 VERSO. Palimpsest parchment leaves, originally measuring about 15^ X 11 inches (39 X 28 cm.), containing in the under-writing about 150 verses of the Hexaplaric Psalter, written in a hand of the ninth or tenth century. In the thirteenth or fourteenth century the codex was dismantled and the parchment reused for another book. The leaves were (partially) erased and cut in half laterally, each half making two leaves and four pages of the new codex. The Plate shows one such leaf (formerly the upper half of a page of the original codex), the under-writing, in five columns, giving for Psalm 27 [28]: 6-7 the trans-
literation of the Hebrew text and the translations made by Aquila, Symmachus, the Seventy, and, instead of Theodotion as might have been expected, the Quinta (see footnote 87 above). The first column of the Hexapla, giving the Hebrew text (see §22), is lacking. By oversight ver. 7 is repeated. Iota adscript occurs (lines 9 and 20); accent and breathing marks are provided even for the transliteration of the Hebrew. The Tetragrammaton is written in square Hebrew letters, followed, in the Septuagint column, by the contraction for K&PIOS (in ver. 8 on the next page la is followed1 by iriiri; see §20 end).
BIBLIOGRAPHY for Hexaplaric text: Giovanni Mercati (ed.), Psalterii Hexapli Reliquiae . . ., Pars Prima: Codex Rescriptus Bybliothecae Ambrosianae O 39 sup. phototypice expressus et transcriptus (Vatican City, 1958); idem, Pars Prima: 'Osservazioni* Commento critico al testo dei frammenti esaplari (Vatican City, 1965); P. E. Kahle, 'The Greek Bible Manuscripts used by Origen,' Journal of Biblical Literature, Ixxiv (1960), pp. 111-18; J. A. Emerton, 'A Further Consideration of the Purpose of the Second Column of the Hexapla,' Journal of Theological Studies, n.s. xxii (1971), pp. 15-29.
30
31. Matthew 8:i-io. Gregory-Aland S. A.D. 949. ROME, BIBLIOTECA VATICANA, GR. 354, FOL. 30 RECTO. Parchment codex, containing the four Gospels, dated A.D. 949, 14^ X Q^i inches (36 X 22 cm.), 235 leaves, two columns, an average of 27 lines to a column. Codex Vaticanus 354, the only extant uncial manuscript of the Greek New Testament which has a precise date, indicates in a colophon on fol. 234 verso that it was written by 'Michael, monk [and] sinner,' who finished his work 'in the month of March, the fifth day, the sixth hour, the year (of the world) 6457, the seventh indiction.' The script, written in large oblong or compressed uncials, presents an extreme contrast of heavy and light strokes; the general aspect of the writing is one of excessive artificiality. (This type of Greek writing has received the name 'Slavic,' having been taken as a pattern for the alphabets of Eastern Europe.) The text is provided with accent and breathing marks as well as neumes (see §30 Chapter numbers with titles stand at the top of each column, the same chapter numbers stand in the left-hand margin of col. a opposite 8: i and 8:5, where also the Ammonian section and Eusebian canon numbers are given (-^- and ^y-). In the right-hand margin of col. a, opposite line 5 from the bottom, the abbreviation of marks the close of a lection, which is followed by the lection appointed to be read on the fourth Sunday after Pentecost, In the right-hand margin, written in small uncials, stands a quotation (not otherwise preserved) from Clement of Alexandria's Hypotyposes, bk. vi, dealing with the passage concerning the leper (a conventional sign above col. a, line 5 of the Scripture text, is repeated above the quotation), the comment bearing particularly upon the meaning of the phrase (lines 6 and 5 from the bottom of col. a), which is marked with several dots above the first and last letters of the phrase.
The Plate shows the page somewhat reduced in size. BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Mercati, Unframmento delle Ipotiposi di Clemente Alessandrino (Studi e testi, 12; Rome, 1904).
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32. Philemon 10-25. Gregory-Aland 1739. x cent. MOUNT ATHOS, LAURA 184 (B'64), FOL. 102 RECTO. Parchment codex, containing the Acts of the Apostles, the Catholic and Pauline Epistles, x century, 9^6 X 6^ inches (23 X 17.5 cm.), 102 leaves, one column, an average 0535 lines to the page. This interesting and important manuscript was written by a monk named Ephraim, from whose pen at least three other manuscripts have survived. He copied MS. 1739 from an uncial exemplar that contained a large number of notes drawn from Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, and Basil. Since no comment is assigned to a writer more recent than Basil (A.D. 329—379), it appears that the ancestor of 1739 was written toward the close of the fourth century. A superscription to the Pauline Epistles (fol. 44 verso) indicates that the scribe of this fourth-century exemplar used a manuscript which contained an Origenian type of text. This, however, was not of the Caesarean type but of a relatively pure form of the Alexandrian type. For example, along with p48 B* N* in Eph. 1:1 MS. 1739 lacks Zuntz finds close links between the archetype of 1739 and p48 and B. Above line i after a corrector has added thereby conforming the text to that of & C Dc E K L P al and the Textus Receptus. Several notes stand in the right-hand margin: opposite line i, opposite line 3, with a horizontal line (obelos) extending into the left-hand margin and a mark of reference in the text before (ver. 12), a word which is lacking in a/; opposite line 5, with the abbreviation of reXos in the text following (ver. 13); opposite line a n d opposite lines 13 a n d 14,i o f t h e second part of ver. 20, to which it is linked by •/ . Following the text are several superscriptions: lines 21-22, In smaller letters to the left of lines 21-22, and to the right of line Lines 23-29, j
The lower portion of this, the final leaf, has been cut off. of Early Christian Rhetoric in the New Testament Manuscript 1739,' Opuscula Selecta . . . (Manchester, 1972), pp. 284-90; and J. Neville Birdsall, 'A Study of MS. 1739 of the Pauline Epistles and its Relationship to MSS. 6, 424, 1908, and M,' unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Nottingham, 1959; and idem, 'The Text and Scholia of the Codex von der Goltz and its Allies, and their Bearing upon the Texts of the Works of Origen, especially the Commentary on Romans,' Origeniana, premier colloque international des etudes origeniennes, Monserrat 1973 (Quaderni di 'Vetera christianorum,' 12; Bari, 1975), pp. 215-21. For the work and influence of the scribe Ephraem, see J. Irigoin, 'Le scriptorium d'Ephrem,' Scriptorium, xiii (1959), pp. 181-95, an<* A- Diller, 'The Age of Some Early Greek Classical Manuscripts,' Serta Turynianaed. by John L. Heller (Urbana, 1974), pp. 514-24-
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. von der Goltz, Eine textkritische Arbeit des zehnten bezw. sechsten Jahrhunderts (Tcxte und Untersuchungen, N.F. ii. 4; Berlin, 1899); Otto Bauernfeind, Der Romerbrieftext des Origens (Texte und Untersuchungen, 3te Reihe, xiv. 3; Berlin, 1923); Six Collations of New Testament Manuscripts, ed. by Kirsopp Lake and Silva New (Harvard Theological Studies, xvii; Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1932), pp. 141-219; Kirsopp and Silva Lake, 'The Scribe Ephraim,' Journal of Biblical Literature, Ixii (1943), pp. 263-8; Aubrey Diller, 'Notes on Greek Codices of the Tenth Century,' Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Ixxvii (1947), pp. 184-8, esp. 186; K. W. Kim, 'Codices 1582, 1739, and Origen,' Journal of Biblical Literature, Ixix (1950), pp. 167-75; G. Zuntz, The Text of the Epistles; a Disquisition upon the Corpus Paulinum (London, 1953), pp. 68-84; idem, 'A Piece
112
32
33- John 19:10-16; Matthew 27:3-5. Gregory-Aland [562. A.D. 991. ROME, BIBLIOTECA VATICANA, GR. 2138, FOL. 29 VERSO. Parchment codex, containing a Gospel lectionary (with lacunae), dated A.D. 991, 10^ X ^A inches (25.9 X 18.5 cm.), 91 leaves, two columns, 29 lines to a column. This carefully written Gospel lectionary has elaborate initials in yellow, blue, green, and carmine; some of them are zoomorphic. The scribe has also occasionally colored the interior of letters in the text, e.g. omicron (col. a, lines 12 and 19; col. b, line 2) and pi (col. a, line 4). The writing is pendent from the ruled lines. The title written in uncial letters (col. b, lines 13-14), refers to the fifth of the twelve lections of the Passion of Jesus Christ, read on Holy Thursday (Matt. 27:3-32). The latter part of the fourth lection (John 18:28-19:16) stands in col. a and the first part of col. b. According to a colophon on fol. 52 recto, Kyriakos, monk and presbyter, wrote the manuscript in the town of Capua, and another on fol. 91 recto states that it was finished in the year (of the world) 6499, in the fourth indiction, on the twelfth of June. The equivalent year of the Incarnation is also given: Several kinds of modifications have been made in the text. Wishing to give emphasis in John 19:11, someone erased the words ejuoO at the end of the clause (col. a, lines 5-6), wrote them in the left-hand margin, and keyed the marginal note by the siglum. |. (which is also placed after tj-ovvlav in line 5), thus directing the lector to read the text in the sequence This order of words is also read by K L X i, 33, 124, 157 et al. In line 12, in order to make doubly certain that no one will misunderstand to whom the pronoun avrbv refers, it is deleted by a stroke and the lector is advised by a note in the margin to replace it with TOV 'I At the end'of line 2 from the bottom of col. a the word 5e has been erased, thereby conforming the text (John 19:14) to that of MS. 157 and several other witnesses. In col. b, lines 15-16, a new lection opens with the conventional incipit TO> /caip4? e/ccivaj (see §29 end), followed by a lozenge. At the opening of the new lection ('I8uv 'lovdas on KareKpidij, Matt. 27:3) the text is expanded by an addition, written in small letters, so as to read In the lower margin stands rpiaKovra which, by a conventional siglum, the lector is advised to insert between and in line 3 from the bottom of col. b, thus conforming the text of Matt. 27:5 to that of N 047, 122. The scribe uses Kai-compendium (col. a, lines 22 and 29; col. b, line 21). The question mark after (col. a, line 3) is partly combined with the epsilon. Occasionally double accent marks (see footnote 20 above) stand on (col. b, line 3 from top and line 5 from bottom). BIBLIOGRAPHY: See the literature mentioned in §29.
114
33
34- Isaiah 61:1-5. Prophetologion. xi cent. JERUSALEM, GREEK PATRIARCHAL LIBRARY, SABA 247, FOL. 124 RECTO. Parchment codex, containing a Prophetologion (with lacunae), xi century, n x SjM* inches (28 X 22 cm.), 188 leaves, two columns, 23 lines to a column. Prophetologion is the term used to designate a collection of Scripture lessons drawn from the Greek Old Testament. The name indicates the great part played by the lessons taken from the prophets, among whom Isaiah is prominent, but there are also many lessons from the Octateuch and Proverbs and a few from other books of the Old Testament. In comparison with the number of Greek lectionaries of the New Testament (namely 2209; see Appendix III), the number of copies of the Prophetologion known to scholars is relatively few—only about 160 manuscripts, dating from the ninth to the sixteenth century. According to Hoeg and Zuntz, a very marked uniformity characterizes the manuscripts of the Prophetologion. This uniformity is all the more striking when one considers that a lesson is a veritable cento made up of verses separated in the original text. No less obvious is the uniformity of the liturgical instructions, which are much fuller here than in the Gospel lectionaries. Written in a typical minuscule hand of the eleventh century, Saba MS. 247 is equipped with neumes for the cantillation of the Scripture text. The Plate shows the decorative headpiece at the beginning of the reading for September i s t W i t h i n the headpiece it is indicated that at the 'beginning of the Indiction,' the passage from Isaiah2 is to be used in memory of 'St. Simeon the Stylite,' A collation of the Scripture text shown on the Plate against the text of the edition of the Prophetologion prepared by Hoeg and Zuntz (pp. 469 f.) discloses the following variant readings: column a
column b
line17
line e
line 19
A collation against the text of Isaiah in the Gottingen Septuagint edited by Joseph Ziegler (Isaias, 1935) discloses the following variant readings: Isaiah 61:1
61:2 61:3 61:4
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Alfred Rahlfs, Die alttestamentlichen Lektionen der griechischen Kirche (Gottingen, 1915); Carsten Hoeg and Gunther Zuntz, 'Remarks on the Prophetologion,' Quantulacumque; Studies Presented to Kirsopp Lake by Pupils, Colleagues and Friends, ed. by Robert P. Casey et al. (London, 1937), pp. 189-226;
G. Zuntz, 'Das byzantinische Septuagint-Lektionar ('Prophetologion'),' Classica et Mediaevalia, xvii (1956), pp. 183-98; Prophetologium, ed. by Carsten Hoeg and Gunther Zuntz (Monumenta musicae byzantinae, Lectionaria, vol. i, fasc. 1-6; Copenhagen, 1939-70).
1
The first three letters of iu)vi are written as a ligature. The passage begins with Is. 61:1-10; according to Rahlfs (Die alttestamentlichen Lektionen der griechischen Kirche, 1915, pp. 139 f.) it continues with Lev. 26 (abbreviated) and Wis. 4:7-15. 1
116
34
35- Jude 3-25. Gregory-Aland 623. A.D. 1037. ROME, BIBLIOTECA VATICANA, GR. 1650, FOL. 31 RECTO. Parchment codex, containing the Acts of the Apostles, the Catholic and Pauline Epistles (followed by the homilies of St. John Chrysostom on the Acts of the Apostles), dated A.D. 1037, 13^ X io^i inches (34.6 X 27 cm.), 187 leaves, two columns, average of 43 lines to a column. A colophon on fol. 186 recto gives the name of the scribe, the place, the name of the bishop, and the date when he finished writing the manuscript: i The numbers B f A in the left-hand margin of the columns signify the beginning of the chapters, the titles of which stand in the upper and lower margins. The title at the top of col. a is the second part of the first title, continued from the preceding page; the second part refers to verses 5-10: kv The title at the foot of col. a refers to verses 11-16: B (sic) The title at the foot of col. b refers to verses 17-23: The title for X, verses 24-25, is lacking. The notes that stand in the left-hand margin of each column are part of the Euthalian apparatus (see §27). In col. a, lines 27 f., the statement about Michael the archangel contending with the devil (ver. 9) is identified in the margin as from the apocryphal book known as the Assumption of Moses, and in col. b, lines 7 f., the quotation (verses 14-15) is identified as from the apocryphal book of Enoch. At the conclusion of col. b is the subscription Between lines 10 and 11 of col. a a corrector has added the word TOVTO, which is intended to replace Travra in line 11 (ver. 5). Among other witnesses is read by N A B al; is read by K L and the great mass of minuscule manuscripts. The Plate shows the page reduced in size. BIBLIOGRAPHY: For an encyclopedic survey of all known textual evidence for the Epistle of Jude, see
(Stockholm, 1962), pp. 143-590 (for a collation of MS. 623, see p. 389).
C. A. Albin, jfudasbrevet, traditionen, texten, tolkningen
1 For the Christogram (chi-rho monogram), see the literature cited in the footnote attached to the description of Plate 17.
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35
36. Luke 21:37-38; John 7:53-8:11; Luke 22:1-3. Gregory-Aland 124. xi cent. VIENNA, NATIONALBIBLIOTHEK, THEOL. GR. 188, FOL. 122 RECTO. Parchment codex, containing the four Gospels (with lacunae), xi century, 8>4 X 7H inches (21.5 X 18.8 cm.), 188 leaves, two columns, 25 to 28 lines to a column. Initials at the beginning of books in codex 124 are ornamented with red, blue, green, brown, and black; initials elsewhere (at the beginning of sections) are ornamented with red and blue. The Ammonian section and Eusebian canon numbers stand in the left-hand margins of the columns. The lower margin contains information regarding parallel passages in Luke, John, Mark, and Matthew. At the top of the page shown in Plate 36 stand the chapter number or (= 76) and the title Written in Calabria, southern Italy, MS. 124 was formerly the property of a certain Leo John Sambuky, 'Pannonii Caesaris consul et historicus,' who brought it from Naples to Vienna in the latter half of the sixteenth century. In the nineteenth century William Hugh Ferrar, professor of Latin in the University of Dublin, made the discovery that this manuscript and three others (13, 69, and 346) are related; his collations of the four were published posthumously by T. K. Abbott. Today it is known that this group, called the Ferrar group, comprises about a dozen members, more or less closely related. They were copied between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries, and are descendants of an archetype that came either from Calabria or from Sicily. Rendel Harris, on the ground of certain affinities with the Old Syriac version, attempted to establish a Syriac origin for the most characteristic readings of the group, while in a subsequent study he argued for an Arabic medium of transmission for this Syriac influence. During the twentieth century several scholars identified the group as a constituent part of the Caesarean type of text. (See also Plate 45.) One of the noteworthy features of the Ferrar group of manuscripts is the presence of the pericope de adultera (John 7:53-8:11), not in the Fourth Gospel,1 but after Luke 21:38 (see Plate 36, col. a, line 5, to line 16 of col. 6), where the reference to Mount Olivet in Luke 21137 makes a not inappropriate context for John 8:1. Other features that members of the Ferrar group have in common include the transfer of Luke 22:434 44 to follow after Matt. 26:39, as well as a set of four subscriptions attached to the Gospels. These state that Matthew was written in Hebrew eight years after the Lord's Ascension, and contains 2522 ' and 2560 (see §23); that Mark was written in L a t i n t e n years after the Ascension with 1675 and 1604 ; Luke, in Greek fifteen years alter, with 3803 (should be 3083) and 2750 and John, thirty-two years after with 1938 BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Hugh Ferrar, A Collation of Four Important Manuscripts of the Gospels. . ., ed. by T. K. Abbott (Dublin, 1877); J. Rendel Harris, On the Origin of the Ferrar-Group (Cambridge, 1893); idem, Further Researches into the History of the Ferrar-Group (London, 1900), E. A. Hutton, 'Excursus on the Ferrar
Group,'An Atlas of Textual Criticism (Cambridge, 1911), pp. 49-53; K. and S. Lake, Family 13. . . (London, 1941); Jacob Geerlings, The Lectionary Text of Family 13 . . . (Salt Lake City, 1959); idem, Family 13. The Ferrar Group (1961-64).
1
In some manuscripts the pericope de adultera stands after John 7:36 (MS. 2525) or after John 7:44 (several Georgian MSS.) or after 21:25 (MSS. i 565 1076 1570 1582). It is lacking altogether in the oldest witnesses (p86- n K B). For a discussion of the textual evidence, including that of the versions and the Fathers, see Metzger's A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (London, 1971), pp. 219-22.
120
36
37- Luke 11:2-8. Gregory-Aland 700. xi cent. LONDON, BRITISH LIBRARY, EGERTON 2610, FOL. 184 VERSO. Parchment codex, containing the four Gospels, xi century, 5^ X 4-H inches (14.8 X 11.7 cm.), 297 leaves, one column, 19 lines to a page. The manuscript was bought by the British Museum at an auction held in London in the year 1882; it was previously in the possession of a German bookseller. Each Gospel is prefixed by a beautifully executed miniature of the Evangelist, and the first letter of each Gospel is a large decorated capital in blue and gold. The numbers and titles of chapters are given in the earlier part of Matthew and Mark and in the first half of Luke, and only nine times in John. Sufficient space was left in the text for the insertion of the words apxrj and TCOS to mark the beginning and ending of each lection, but only in Luke and John did the original scribe insert these notations sporadically (in gold). In Matthew and Mark they were added here and there by a second hand. The scribe employs a rather wide variety of compendia and ligatures (see Hoskier, pp. xi-xiii), and is quite erratic in his (mis) use of the iota adscript. The text of MS. 700 exhibits (so Hoskier) 2724 variations from the Textus Receptus (of which 791 are omissions and 353 are additions), and besides has 270 readings that are peculiar to itself. Among unusual readings are the omission of Luke 3:22; the substitution of John 7:39; for Luke 22:20; and the replacement of the petition 'Thy kingdom come' in Luke's form (i 112) of the Lord's Prayer with 'Thy holy Spirit come upon us and cleanse us,' (see lines 2 and 3 of the Plate). This reading occurs also in MS. 162 (though without and was known to Marcion and/or Tertullian (in place of 'Hallowed be thy name'), to Gregory of Nyssa, and to Maximus Confessor. Although several modern scholars (including Blass, Harnack, Streeter, Leaney) have argued that this petition was original to the Lord's Prayer, it is more likely that the reading is a liturgical adaptation of the Prayer, used when celebrating the rite of baptism or the laying on of hands. The cleansing descent of the Holy Spirit is so definitely a Christian, ecclesiastical concept that one cannot understand why, if it were original in the prayer, it should have been supplanted in the overwhelming majority of the witnesses by a concept originally so much more Jewish in its piety ('Thy kingdom come'). In the left-hand margin of the page shown in the Plate are the Latin1 abbreviation of the words Oratio dominica ('the Lord's Prayer'), the Ammonian section and Eusebian canon numbers identifying the passage opposite as the 124th in the tenth canon (I), and the c o r r e c t i o n r e p l a c ing in the text (the letters of which have been expunged by putting dots beneath them), the scribe connecting the two words by means of the siglum /. written near each. In the upper and the right-hand margins are imprinted the mirror-image of the heading and the Eusebian apparatus from the facing page (fol. 185 recto). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Herman C. Hoskier, A Full Account and Collation of the Greek Cursive Codex Evangelium 604 [ = 700] .. (London, 1890); B. M. Metzger, 'The Lord's Prayer,' Twentieth Century Encyclopedia of Religious
1
Knowledge, ii (Grand Rapids, 1955), p. 673; Robert Leaney, 'The Lucan Text of the Lord's Prayer,' Novum Testamentum, i (1956), pp. 103-11.
Elsewhere in the manuscript one finds occasional Latin marginalia written by a later scribe.
122
37
38. Matthew 3:10-11; John i: 19-21. Gregory-Aland ^03. xii cent. PRINCETON, THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY LIBRARY, 11.21.1900, FOL. 235 RECTO. Parchment codex, containing a Gospel lectionary, xii century, iz^i X io^i inches (31.6 X 27 cm.), 340 leaves, two columns, 23 lines to a column in the synaxarion, 20 in the menologion. This handsome Greek Gospel lectionary was donated in the fourteenth century by the Presbyter Abul Fath, son of the Presbyter Abul Badr, to the Church of Mar Saba in the diocese of Alexandria. A colophon in Greek and Arabic on fol. i verso declares, 'No one has authority from God to take it away under any condition, and whoever transgresses this will be under the wrath of the eternal Word of God, whose power is great. Gregory,1 Patriarch by the grace of God, wrote this.' As is mentioned in §29, the Greek Gospel lectionary comprises two parts, the synaxarion and the menologion. The former, beginning with Easter, presents for every day until Pentecost lessons drawn almost entirely from the Gospel according to John. From the Monday after Pentecost to approximately mid-September the lessons for Saturdays and Sundays are from Matthew, and for the other days of the week from Matthew and (from the twelfth week onward) from the first half of Mark. From about mid-September to Lent, the lessons for Saturdays and Sundays are from Luke, and for the other days of the week from Luke and (from the thirteenth week onward) from the second half of Mark. During Lent and Holy Week the lessons, some of them extensive, are provided from one or another of the four Gospels. The menologion, which follows the civil calendar month by month, beginning with the first of September, is organized in celebration of festivals and saints' days. Except for unanimity as to the thirteen major festivals of the Church year,2 menologia present many differences among themselves as to choice of Scripture lessons as well as of saints and festivals to be commemorated. Very often when it happens that the Scripture lesson for a particular day in the menologion is the same as a lesson already provided in the synaxarion for a given day, the actual text will not be written again in the menologion, but a rubric will direct the lector to turn to the proper section in the synaxarion. The page reproduced in the Plate shows a page of the menologion of 7303 for January. The lesson appointed for January 3, namely Matt. 3:1, 5-11, begins on the previous page; it ends (col. a, line 3 from bottom) with the words the concluding words of the verse (xai irupi) 3 being absent. Following the conclusion of the lesson for January 3rd, the last two lines of col. a and the first seven lines of col. b present several rubrics in red ink (line 7 is in red and gold). With abbreviations expanded they are: [the text of the lesson appointed for] [the text of the lesson appointed for] Then follows the lesson appointed for January 4 (the numeral stands in the left-hand margin), which is the day preceding the Festival of Lights The lesson (John i: 19-26) begins with the customary liturgical incipit, the initial letter of which is written in red and gold. BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. M. Metzger, 'Studies in a Greek Gospel Lectionary (Greg. 303),' unpublished Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1942; idem, 'A Treasure in the Seminary Library,' Princeton Seminary Bulletin,
xxxvi, no. 4 (March 1943), pp. 14-19. On the earlier history of the manuscript, see Caspar Ren6 Gregory, The Independent, 15 October 1888, p. 1343, and 24 January 1889, p. i n .
1
It appears that this Gregory is the Melchite dignitary of that name who was the seventy-fourth Greek Patriarch of Alexandria. 3 Cf. Morgan Ward Redus, The Text of the Major Festivals of the Menologion in the Greek Gospel Lectionary (Chicago, 1936). a They are lacking also in E S V 28, 59, 241, 245, 349, 470, 517, 692, and a few other witnesses. 4 The scribe uses iota adscript for the first two words, but omits it for the third.
124
38
39- Galatians 2:16-20; Colossians 2:13-14. Gregory-Aland/8og. xii cent. SINAI, MONASTERY OF ST. CATHERINE, GR. 286, FOL. 141 RECTO. Parchment codex, containing an Apostolos lectionary, xii century, fyi X 9 inches (29.5 X 22.8 cm.), 286 leaves, two columns, 23 lines to a column. The structure of the Apostolos lectionary follows that of the Gospel lectionary (see the description of Plate 38), namely the Johannine section from Easter to Pentecost, the Matthean section from Monday after Pentecost to approximately mid-September, the Lukan section from midSeptember to the beginning of Lent, and the Lenten and Holy Week section. The Apostolos lessons for each of the sections are usually arranged in the following sequence: In the Johannine section lessons are chosen from the Acts of the Apostles. Out of a total of 1007 verses in this book, 583 are used at least once, and the remaining 424 verses (largely historical and narrative material) are not used in any lesson. Of a total of 2767 verses in the New Testament Epistles, 2397 are used at least once, and the remaining 370 are not used in any lesson. It is difficult to ascertain any principle for selection and omission.1 The sequence of lessons for the Matthean, Lukan, and Lenten sections runs in a generally consecutive way from Romans to Jude, but there are occasional differences of selection of lessons among Apostolos manuscripts. Lectionary 809, shown in Plate 39, contains both synaxarion and menologion as well as a concluding list of lessons for various occasions Written in a flowing yet careful hand, with .enlarged initials at the beginning of the lessons, the scribe provides a decorative headpiece at the beginning of the synaxarion (fol. i recto) and the menologion (fol. 222 recto). Fol. 286 recto contains a prayer addressed to Christ to relieve the scribe of his troubles: X The Plate shows the conclusion of the lesson for the fourth Sunday of Luke and the beginning of the lesson for Monday of the twenty-second week The lesson begins, as usual in the Apostolos, with the incipit d5cX0oi. The text of both lessons agrees with that of the Textus Receptus, except that at the beginning of the lesson from Colossians X is inserted as the subject of the verb The manuscript is furnished with neumes. Junack, 'Zu den griechischen Lektionaren und ihrer Uberlieferung der Katholischen Briefe,' Die alien Ubersetzungen des Neuen Testaments, die Kirchenvaterz.ita.te und Lektionare, ed. K. Aland (Berlin and New York, 1972), pp. 498-591.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sakae Kubo, 'The Catholic Epistles in the Greek Lectionary: a Preliminary Investigation,' Andrews University Seminary Studies, i (1963), pp. 65-70; Ronald £. Cocroft, A Study of the Pauline Lessons in the Matthean Section of the Greek Lectionary (Studies and Documents, vol. xxxii; Salt Lake City, 1968); Klaus
1 Strangely enough, such passages as Heb. 5:7-10 and 7:26-8:6, which present Christ as high priest, are omitted, while i Cor. 16:13-24, which contains Paul's personal greetings and remarks to and about specific individuals, is included.
126
39
40. Luke 1:1-6. Gregory-Aland 165. A.D. 1292. ROME, BIBLIOTECA VATICANA, BARB. GR. 541, FOL. 100 VERSO. Parchment codex, containing the four Gospels in Greek and Latin, dated A.D. 1292, 12 x 8 inches (30.5 x 20.3 cm.), 215 leaves, two columns, 33-34 lines to a column. This bilingual manuscript, with Greek in the left-hand column, Latin in the right-hand column, has decorated headpieces and intricate initial letters at the opening of each of the Gospels. The Plate shows the beginning of the Gospel according 'to Luke, with initial E in Greek, initial Q in Latin. The style of the Greek .calligraphy is regarded by Devreesse to be typical of the area of Rhegina in south Italy. A colophon on fol. 213 recto indicates that the manuscript was written at the town Ullano in Calabria by Romanus, an abbot of the monastery of St. Benedict, which was located in the 'Valley Grata,' the cost having been borne by Paul Mezzabarba, archbishop of Rossanensis [1287-1299/1300], during the reign of Carolus II [king of Sicily, Apulia, and Capua, 1289-1309]:
In the Greek column the scribe occasionally writes one or more letters above the line (e.g. lines 8, 12, 15, 24). In order to keep the Latin text more or less parallel with the Greek, the final letter of a line may be extended to the right (s is extended in lines 16, 23, 24). In line i of the Latin column the word quidem, having been omitted, has been inserted (in abbreviated form) above the line. BIBLIOGRAPHY: For other manuscripts written in Calabria, see Robert Devreesse, Les manuscrits grecs de I'ltalie meridionale (Studi e testi, 183; Vatican City, 'SSS)* PP- 37~43J c^ M.-L. Concasty, 'Manuscrits grecs originaires de 1* Italic meridionale conserves a Paris,' Atti dello VIII Congresso Internationale di studi biZantini, I—Studi Bizantini e Neoellenici, vii (1953), p. 29,
n. i, and Paul Canart, 'Le probleme du style d'ecriture dit 'en as de pique' dans manuscrits italo-grecs,' Atti del 4° congresso storico calabrese (Naples, 1969), pp. 53-69. Concerning the monastery of St. Benedict de Ullano, cf. Pietro P. Rodota, DeWarigine, progresso, e state presente del rito greco in Italia, iii (Rome, 1763; reprinted Cosenza, 1961), pp. 68-78.
128
40
4i. Hebrews 11:33-38. Gregory-Aland 1922. A.D. 1317/1318. FLORENCE, BIBLIOTECA LAURENZIANA, MS. PLUT. X, 19, FOL. 251 VERSO. Parchment codex, containing the Pauline Epistles (with the commentary of Pseudo-Oecumenius), dated A.D. 1317/1318, 9^ X 7^4 inches (24.7 x 18.5 cm.), 260 leaves, one column, framed by commentary on three sides (in upper, outer vertical, and lower margins). A colophon in red ink (fol. 259 recto) indicates that the manuscript was written by ('Timothy, priest and monk, 1 the son of Paradisios'). The Scripture text is written in a careful hand, equipped with accent and breathing marks; the latter, as would be expected from the date, are round. The commentary of Pseudo-Oecumenius is written in smaller script with a good number of abbreviations, and the glosses are keyed by Greek numerals to the appropriate word or phrase in the Scripture text. Ecclesiastical history knows two important writers named Oecumenius: one, who lived in the first half of the sixth century, was the author of the earliest extant Greek commentary on the Book of Revelation; the other was bishop of Tricca in Thessaly during the tenth century, to whom commentaries on Acts and the Pauline and Catholic Epistles have been ascribed. The comments given in codex 1922 are slightly abbreviated as compared with those printed in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxix, col. 421 A-C. A transcription of the first lines of the commentary on He 11 -.33 f. is as follows:
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Karl Staab, Die Pauluskatenen nach den handschriftlichen Quellen untersucht (Rome, 1926), p.110; idem, Pauluskommentare aus der griechischen Kirche aus Katenenhandschriften gesammelt und herausgegeben (Mxin-
ster/Westf., 1933), pp. 423-69; and Josef Schmid, 'Okumenios der Bischof von Trikka,' Byzantinischneugriechische Jahrbiicher, xiv (1938), pp. 322-30.
1 For another manuscript written by this scribe, see Vogel-Gardthausen, op. cit. (footnote 149 above), p. 415. For the meaning of as ascetic or monk, see Du Cange, Glossarium ad Scriptores mediae et infimae Graecitatis, i (Paris, 1688; reprinted, Graz, 1958), cols. 983 f., and Lampe, Patristic Greek Lexicon (Oxford, 1961), p. 896.
130
41
42. Revelation 11:7-8 and 9. Gregory-Aland 2060. A.D. 1330/1331. ROME, BIBLIOTECA VATICANA, GR. 542, FOL. 308 VERSO. Parchment codex, containing the Book of Revelation (with the homilies of St. John Chrysostom and the commentary of Andrew of Caesarea on that book), dated A.D. 1330/1331, 11 x 8^ inches (28 x 21.3 cm.), 369 leaves (text of Revelation and commentary, folios 149-251), one column, 29 lines to a page. Between about 563 and 614 Archbishop Andrew of Caesarea in Cappadocia wrote a commentary on the Book of Revelation which has some importance in exegetical history. From the standpoint of textual criticism, as was first recognized by Bengel, the commentary is useful in supplying information on one of the two later recensions of the Greek text of Revelation. The uncertainty of several minuscule texts of the Apocalypse is partly due to glosses that have crept into them from adjoining sections of Andrew's commentary. The scribe of MS. 2060 alternates sections of Scripture text with sections of Andrew's commentary; he indicates the beginning of each section by enlarging the initial letter, extending it into the left-hand margin, and prefixing (in red ink, now much faded) at the end of the preceding line the word ('text') or tppv or ('commentary'). In the left-hand margin attention is drawn to the Scripture text by a series of stylized sigla arranged vertically. In Rev. 11:7 the manuscript, in company with MS. i and a few other witnesses, omits the words , which are read by most of the other witnesses. Transcription of Andrew's commentary, lines 12 ff.:
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Andrew of Caesarea's Commentary on the Apocalypse, in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cvi, col. 313; also in Josef Schmid, Studien zur Geschichte des
132
griechischen Apokalypse-Textes, i (Miinster/W., 1955), pp. U4f.
42
43- Romans 14:22-23; 16:25-27; 15:1-2. Gregory-Aland 223. xiv cent. ANN ARBOR, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, MS. 35, FOL. 144 RECTO. Parchment codex, containing Acts, the Pauline and the Catholic Epistles, with lacunae, xiv century, y% X 8^ inches (28.2 X 21.3 cm.), 376 leaves, one column, 22-23 ^nes to a PageAccording to K. W. Clark, 'This Ms. is a beautiful piece of bookmaking—one of the finest, and is still in an excellent state of preservation, though three leaves have been lost. It is composed of a fine quality of parchment of ivory tint, is written in an elegant hand throughout with ornamental initials and titles in gold, has been brilliantly illuminated with a headpiece in blue, red, green and gold before every book (II Cor., Eph., Heb. lack their first leaves), and was originally well bound in its present stamped reddish-brown leather over wooden boards.' It was unusual for so much expense and care to be expended on a copy of the Praxapostolos, as compared with the Gospels. In 1864 the Revd. Reginald H. Barnes, Prebendary of Exeter, acting as agent for the Baroness Burdett-Coutts, bought codex 223, with other manuscripts, from a dealer at Janina in Epirus. It was acquired by the University of Michigan in 1922. While the manuscript was in England one of von Soden's helpers collated it in selected passages in the Pauline Epistles; Clark, who published a collation of the entire manuscript, found 62 errors in 229 readings of von Soden's list. At the end of Jude a colophon (fol. 367 verso) written in gold reads: The scribe writes a large and flowing hand, and leaves wide margins. Enlarged initial letters, extending into the lefthand margin, mark new paragraphs. Diaeresis sometimes stands over i and u even when they are alone in a syllable. Lectionary equipment is provided (see §29); opposite line 17 in the left-hand margin i s a n d in the right-hand margin is the notation that Rom. 15:1 ff. is to be read on r the fifth as well as the lesson appointed for the seventh In the lower margin stands the ' for the 18th beginning at Rom. 15:1, namely ('Concerning the imitation of the forebearance of Christ'). The doxology, which stands traditionally as Rom. 16:25-27 (so N B C D 81 1739 al and the Textus Receptus), occurs after 14:23 in this manuscript (as well as in L ^f 614 and most Byzantine MSS.). 2
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Description and collation in Kenneth W. Clark, Eight American Praxapostoloi (Chicago, 1941).
1 Antonios of Malaka is credited with having written two other manuscripts of the New Testament, GregoryAland 1305 and /279; see M. Vogel and V. Gardthausen, Die griechischen Schreiber des Mittelalters und der Renaissance (Leipzig, 1909; reprinted Hildesheim, 1966), p. 38. 2 For a succinct discussion of the textual problems concerning the position of the doxology, see B. M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (London, 1971), pp. 533-6; for a fuller discussion, see Harry Gamble, Jr., The Textual History of the Letter to the Romans (Grand Rapids, 1977), pp. 129-32.
134
43
44- i Peter 5:12-14. Gregory-Aland 1022. xiv cent. BALTIMORE, WALTERS ART GALLERY, MS. 533, FOL. 107 VERSO.
Parchment codex, containing Acts, the Catholic and the Pauline Epistles, xiv century, 9^6 x 6K inches (23.3 x 17.1 cm.), 360 leaves, one column, average of 25 lines to a page. K. W. Clark describes 1022 as 'an impressive codex, containing as it does twentyone miniatures, a portrait before each book (two before i Thess.). The miniature before 11 Cor. has been cut out, while before i Tim. there is space for a miniature on a later supplied leaf replacing the lost Folio 267.' The scribe provides fffis for the Catholic and the Pauline Epistles, and for the Pastoral Epistles and Hebrews, occasional indications of the number of and lectionary notes in the margins. Folios 314-360 contain extensive lection tables by a later hand (xv century?). A corrector has made many corrections throughout the manuscript. The Plate shows a miniature of the Apostle Peter, with nimbus, holding a closed roll. The text of i Pet. 5:12-14, which agrees with the Textus Receptus, is followed by the subscription The hypothesis prefixed to 2 Peter lows:
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Description and collation in Kenneth W. Clark, Eight American Praxapostoloi (Chicago, 1941). For a discussion of the miniatures, see Sirarpie Der Nersessian, 'The Praxapostolos of the Walters Art
Gallery,' Gatherings in Honor of Dorothy E. Miner, ed. by Ursula E. McCracken et al. (Baltimore, 1974), pp. 39~5°-
1 For the text of the entire hypothesis, see H. von Soden, Die Schrtften des Neuen Testaments in ihrer altesten erreichbaren Textgestalt, i (Berlin, 1902), p. 336.
136
44
45- Luke 2:33-50. Gregory-Aland 69. xv cent. 6D32 LEICESTER, TOWN MUSEUM, MUNIMENT ROOM, COD. i , FOL. 39 RECTO. Parchment and paper codex,1 containing the New Testament, with lacunae2 (Gospels, Pauline Epistles [including Hebrews], Acts, Catholic Epistles, and Revelation3), xv century, 14^ x iofi inches (37.8 X 27 cm.), 213 leaves, one column, 37 and 38 lines to a page. From a variety of data it appears certain that the name of the scribe of codex 69 was Emmanuel, a Greek originally from Constantinople and then residing in England, who occupied himself in the transcribing of classical and Biblical texts.4 The manuscript was presented to George Neville, Archbishop of York (1465-72). At the top of the first page stand the words Ei/u then in a later hand 'Thomas Hayne.' William Chark of Cambridge, who probably lived in the reign of Elizabeth I, entered changes of readings in the margins of the manuscript. About the middle of the seventeenth century it was the property of Thomas Hayne of Trussington, who gave the volume to the Leicester Library in 1640. The scribe of MS. 69 seems to have used a reed rather than a pen, and the style of writing is most peculiar. The smooth and rough breathing marks are often very hard to distinguish, and e is usually placed in a recumbent position, so much resembling a that it is not always clear which was intended. Scrivener, who made a careful collation of the codex, declares: 'We cannot praise the care of the scribe in copying this MS. Many words occur which are only begun, broken off perhaps after the first syllable, and I have counted the large number of 74 omissions from and the like causes. . . . The acute accent is much used where the grave is commonly written by others. The vowels i and v have mostly a single dot over them. . . . This copy is remarkable for always writing at full length up to John xxi.i5, where we meet with is, and in 41 other places, 19 of which are in the Acts.'5 Textually cod. 69 is most remarkable. Although it dates from the fifteenth century, the type of text which it contains has been identified as Caesarean, resembling, in the Gospels, that used by Origen and Eusebius. It belongs to Family 13 (the Ferrar group), and in spite of its date is one of the best of the group. (See also Plate 36.) The Plate shows the page reduced in size. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Collation in Frederick Henry [A.] Scrivener, An Exact Transcript of the Codex Augiensis . . . to which is added a Full Collation of Fifty other Manuscripts. . . (Cambridge, 1859); William Hugh Ferrar,
A Collation of Four Important Manuscripts of the Gospels .., ed. by T. K. Abbott (Dublin, 1877); J. Rendel Harris, The Origin of the Leicester Codex of the New Testament (London, 1887).
1
The codex is written on 91 leaves of parchment and 122 of coarse paper, arranged so that usually two parchment leaves are followed by three paper leaves. The paper is of such poor quality that four of the leaves would bear writing only on one side. 3 The manuscript begins at Matt. 18:15; after Acts 10:45, vivrol, we read in the same line, with no break, o6pavMev, 14:17, the intervening material being entirely omitted (probably it was lacking in the archetype); portions of Jude (7-25) and the Apocalypse (19:10-22:21) are lacking. * According to'Hatch (Facsimiles and Descriptions, p. 260), the four Gospels originally stood at the end of the codex. Between Hebrews and the Acts of the Apostles are five pages containing (a) an exposition of the Creed and statement of the errors condemned by the seven general Councils, and (b) the traditional lives of the Apostles, followed by a description of the limits of the five Patriarchates. 4 Several other manuscripts have been identified as having been written by the same man; see M. R. James, 'The Scribe of the Leicester Codex,' Journal of Theological Studies, v (1903-4), pp. 445-7; cf. also Howard L. Gray, 'Greek Visitors to England in I455~'456,' Anniversary Essays in Mediaeval History by Students of Charles Homer Haskins (Boston and New York, 1929), pp. 81-116, esp. 105-8. * Frederick Henry [A.] Scrivener, An Exact Transcript of the Codex Augiensis . . . (Cambridge, 1859), pp. xliii sq.
138
45
140
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE
Continued from p. 60, Description of Plate 3 BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fragments 105-106 were edited (with facsimile) by W. G. Waddell in the Journal of Theological Studies, xl (1944), pp. 158-61; fragments 1-113, by Frangoise Dunand, 'Papyrus grecs bibliques (Papyrus F. Inv. 266), Volumina de la Genese et du Deuteronome (Introduction),' Recherche* d'archeologie, dephilologie et d histoire, xxvii (Cairo, 1966), and Etudes de papyrologie, ix (Cairo, 1971), pp. 81-150; and Zaki Aly, Three Rolls of the Early Septuagint: Genesis and Deuteronomy (Papyrologische Texte und Abhandlungen, 27; Bonn, 1980). For textual analysis of Rahlfs 848, see John W. Wevers in Catholic Biblical Quarterly, xxxix (1977), pp. 240-4, and, in greater detail, idem, The Text History oj the Greek Deuteronomy (Gottingen, 1978), pp. 64-85.
Continued from p. 62, Description of Plate 4 BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. H. Roberts, An Unpublished Fragment of the Fourth Gospel in the John Rylands Library (Manchester: The Manchester University Press, 1935); republished, with slight-alterations, in the Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, xx (1936), pp. 45-55, and again, with bibliography of reviews and opinions expressed by other scholars, in C. H. Roberts, Catalogue of the Greek and Latin Papyri in the John Rylands Library, vol. iii (Manchester, 1938), pp. 1-3.
Continued from p. 62, Description of Plate 5 BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Bradford Welles, 'The Yale Genesis Fragment,' Tale University Library Gazette, xxxix (1964), pp. 1-8, with two plates; re-edited in J. F. Gates, A. E. Samuel, C. B. Welles, Tale Papyri in the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, i (New Haven-Toronto, 1967), pp. 3-8; C, H. Roberts, 'P. Yale i and the Early Christian Book,' Essays in Honor of C. Bradford Welles (American Studies in Papyrology, i; New Haven, 1966), pp. 25-28.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
THE following is a selected bibliography of works dealing with various aspects of Greek palaeography. The titles are arranged chronologically under the headings 'General Works,' 'Papyrology,' 'Codicology,' and 'Collections of Facsimiles of Greek Manuscripts.' For other titles, particularly of older works, see §§2 and 3. GENERAL
WORKS
V. GARDTHAUSEN, Griechische Palaeographie, 2nd ed.: I. Band, Das Buchwesen im Altertum und im byzantinischen Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1911); II. Band: Die Schrift, Unterschrijten und Chronologic im Altertum und im byzantinischen Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1913), xii-f 243 pp., viii-f 516 pp. E. MAUNDE THOMPSON, An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography (Oxford, 1912), xvi+6oo pp. PAUL MA AS, Griechische Palaeographie, in Alfred Gercke and Eduard Norden's Einleitung in der Altertumswissenschaft. I, 9 (Leipzig, 1924), pp. 69-81. WILHELM SCHUBART, Griechische Palaeographie, in Ivan von Miiller, and W. Otto's Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft, I, 4, i (Munich, 1925), 184 pp. ANTONIOS SIGALAS, 'loropta TTJS 'EXXr/j/ucTjs Fpa^s (Thessaloniki, 1934), vii+327 pp.; 2nd ed. (1974), xv+383 pp. L. GONZAGA DA FONSECA, Epitome introductions in palaeographiam Graecam (Biblicam), ed. altera (Rome, 1944), 132 pp. ROBERT DEVREESSE, Introduction a I*etude des manuscrits grecs (Paris, 1954), viii+347 pp. B. A. VAN GRONINGEN, Short Manual of Greek Palaeography (Leiden, 1940; 3rd edition, 1963), 66 pp. + i2 plates. GUGLIELMO CAVALLO, Ricerche sulla maiuscola biblico (Florence, 1967), xvi+152 pp. + 115 plates. ELPIDIO MIONI, Introduzione alia paleografa greca (Studi bizantini e neogreci [dell'] University di Padova, 5; Padua, 1973), viii+i4o pp.+ 30 plates. AURORA LEONE, L'evoluzione della scrittura nei papiri greet del Vecchio Testamento (Papyrologica Castroctaviana, Studia et textus, 5; Barcelona, 1975), 50 pp.+ 7 plates. La paleographie grecque et byzantine, Paris, 21—25 Octobre 1974 (Colloques internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche scientifique, nr. 559; Paris, 1977). PAPYROLOGY
F. G. KENYON, The Palaeography of Greek Papyri (Oxford, 1899), viii+i6o pp. WILHELM SCHUBART, Einfuhrung in die Papyruskunde (Berlin, 1918), 508 pp. ARISTIDE CALDERINI, Manuale di papirologie antica Graeca e Romano (Milan, 1938), 5-4-196 pp. A. BATAILLE, Les papyrus (Trait6 d'e'tudes byzantines 2; Paris, 1955), 95 pp.+ 14 plates. ERIC G. TURNER, Greek Papyri; an Introduction (Oxford, 1968), ix+22O pp. Includes a comprehensive listing of the principal editions of papyri. ORSOLINA MONTEVECCHI, La Papirologia (Manuali universitari; I, Per lo studio della scienze dell'antichita; Turin, 1973), xvi+544+i84 pp. KURT ALAND, Repertorium der griechischen christlichen Papyri. I, Biblische Papyri. Altes Testament, Neues Testament, Varia, Apokryphen (Patristische Texte und Studien, 18; Berlin and New York, 1976), xiv-f 473 pp. JOSEPH VAN HAELST, Catalogue des Papyrus litteraires juifs et Chretiens (Paris, 1976), xi+424 pp.
141
142
MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK BIBLE CODICOLOGY
C. H. ROBERTS, 'The Codex,' Proceedings of the British Academy, xl (1954), pp. 169-204. A revised edition is in preparation. A. DAIN, Les manuscrits (Paris, 1949); nouvelle edition revue (Paris, 1964), 197 pp. TONNES KLEBERG, Buchhandel und Verlagswesen in der Antike (Darmstadt, 1967), xii+i2i pp. T. C. SKEAT, 'Early Christian Book-Production: Papyri and Manuscripts,' The Cambridge History of the Bible; ii, The West from the Fathers to the Reformation, ed. by G. W. H. Lampe (Cambridge, 1969)* PP- 54-79JAMES M. ROBINSON, 'On the Codicology of the Nag Hammadi Codices,' Les textes de Nag Hammadi: Colloque du Centre d'Histoire des Religions (Strasbourg, 23-25 octobre 1974), ed. by Jacques-E. M6nard (Leiden, 1975), pp. 15-31. ERIC G. TURNER, The Typology of the Early Codex (Philadelphia, 1977), xxiii-f 188 pp. LEON GILISSEN, Prolegomenes a la codicologie; Recherches sur la construction des cahiers et la mise en page des manuscrits medievaux (Ghent, 1977), 252 pp., 63 fig., 97 plates. KURT TREU, ed., Studia Codicologica (Texte und Untersuchungen, Band 124; Berlin, 1977), ix+5og pp.+ 28 plates. JAMES M. ROBINSON, 'The Future of Papyrus Codicology,' The Future of Coptic Studies, ed. by Robert McL. Wilson (Leiden, 1979), pp. 23-70. F. GASTALDELLI, 'Orientamenti bibliografici di codicologia e critica testuale,' Salesianum, xli C 1 979)5 PP- T I5~~39 [classified list of 326 titles dealing with codicology], COLLECTIONS OF FACSIMILES OF GREEK M A N U S C R I P T S
CH. GRAUX and A. MARTIN, Fac-similes de manuscrits grecs d'Espagne (Paris, 1891), vii+127 PPHENRI OMONT, Fac-similes des manuscrits grecs dates de la Bibliotheque Nationale du IXe au XIV' siecle (Paris, 1891), xii+24 pp.+ ioo plates. HENRI OMONT, Fac-similes des plus anciens manuscrits grecs en onciale et en minuscule de la Bibliotheque Nationale du iv' au xii' siecle (Paris, 1892), 18 pp.+50 plates. HENRI OMONT, Tres anciens manuscrits grecs bibliques et classiques de la Bibliotheque Nationale . . . (Paris, 1896), 20 plates. THE PALAEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, Facsimiles of Manuscripts and Inscriptions . . ., First Series (London, 1873-1883), 260 plates; Second Series (London, 1884-1894), 205 plates; Indexes (1901), 63 pp. F. G. KENYON, Facsimiles of Biblical Manuscripts in the British Museum (London, 1900), vi pp.+25 plates. THE NEW PALAEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, Facsimiles of Ancient Manuscripts . . ., First Series (London, 1903-1912), 250 plates; Indexes (1914), 50 pp.; Second Series (London, 1913-1930), 202 plates; Indexes (1932), 43 pp. GREGORIUS CERETELI and SERGIUS SOBOLEVSKI, Exempla codicum Graecorum litteris minusculis scriptorum annorumque notis instructum, vol. i, Codices Mosquenses (Moscow, 1911), 43 plates; vol. 2, Codices Petropolitani (1913), 56 plates. Pius FRANCHI DE' CAVALIERI and HANS LIETZMANN, Specimina codicum Graecorum Vaticanorum (Bonn, 1910; editio iterata et aucta, Berlin and Leipzig, 1929), xvi pp.+50 plates. H. J. VOGELS, Codicum Novi Testamenti Specimina (Bonn, 1929), 13 pp.+54 plates. WM. H. P. HATCH, The Greek Manuscripts of the New Testament at Mount Sinai (Paris, 1932), 12 pp.+ 78 plates. WM. H. P. HATCH, The Greek Manuscripts of the New Testament in Jerusalem (Paris, 1934), 12 pp.+ 66 plates. L. TH. LEFORT & J. COCHEZ, Palaeogrqfisch album van gedagteekende Grieksche minuskelhandschriften uit de IX* en X' eeuw, met enkele Specimina van handschriften uit de XIe-XVIe eeuw (Louvain, 1934), 100 plates. (New printing with Latin title, 1943.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
143
KENNETH W. CLARK, A Descriptive Catalogue of Greek New Testament Manuscripts in America (Chicago, 1937), xxix+4i8 pp.+ 72 plates. WM. H. P. HATCH, The Principal Uncial Manuscripts of the New Testament (Chicago, 1939), xiv+34 pp. + 76 plates. KIRSOPP LAKE and SILVA LAKE, Dated Greek Minuscule Manuscripts to the Tear 1200 A.D. (Monumenta Palaeographica Vetera, First Series), Parts I-X (Boston, 1934-1939)- Index Volume, ed. by Silva Lake (Boston, 1945), xxxv+i85 pp. The 757 plates contain approximately 1000 facsimiles of folios from 401 manuscripts in 30 different libraries. The index volume contains indexes in 14 categories (including names of scribes). WM. H. P. HATCH, Facsimiles and Descriptions of Minuscule Manuscripts of the New Testament (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1951), xii+28g pp. C. H. ROBERTS, Greek Literary Hands, 350 B.C.-A.D. 400 (Oxford Palaeographical Handbooks; Oxford, 1955), xix+24 pp. ALEXANDER TURYN, Codices graeci Vaticani saeculis XIII et XIV scripti annorumque notis instructi. . . . (Vatican City, 1964), xvi+2o6 pp.+205 plates. M. WITTEK, Album de paleographie grecque (Ghent, 1967), 29 pp.+64 plates. H. FOLLIERI, Codices graeci Bibliothecee Vaticana selecti temporum locorumque ordine digesti, commentams et transcriptionibus instructi (Exempla Scriptuarum . . ., iv; Citta del Vaticano, 1969), i n pp. 470 Tabl. E. G. TURNER, Greek Manuscripts of the Ancient World (Oxford and Princeton, 1971), xiv+132 pp. ALEXANDER TURYN, Dated Greek Manuscripts of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries in the Libraries of Italy, 2 vols. (Urbana, 1972), 265 plates depicting folios from 137 mss. from 19 libraries. NIGEL [G.] WILSON, Mediaeval Greek Bookhands; Examples selected from Greek Manuscripts in Oxford Libraries, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1973), 38 pp.+88 plates. GARY VIKAN, ed., Illuminated Greek Manuscripts from American Collections; an Exhibition in Honor of Kurt Weitzmann (Princeton, 1973), 231 pp., 67 MSS. from twenty collections. DIETER HARLFINGER, Specimina griechischer Kopisten der Renaissance; I, Griechen des 15. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1974), 35 pp.+ 78 plates. ELPIDIO MIONI and MARIAROSA FORMENTIN, I codici greci in minuscola dei sec. IX e X della Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana (Padua, 1975), 119 pp-~f~49 plates. T. S. PATTIE, Manuscripts of the Bible (London, 1979), 36 pp. + i8 plates. RUTH BARBOUR, Greek Literary Hands, A.D. 400-1600 (Oxford, in press), 72 pp., 110 plates. ALEXANDER TURYN, Dated Greek Manuscripts of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries in the Libraries of Great Britain (Dumbarton Oaks Studies, vol. xvii; in press).
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I. Index of Scripture Passages Shown in the Plates
II. Index of Manuscripts Arranged According to Their Sigla
Plate
Genesis 14:12-15 Genesis 39:9-18 Genesis 42:7-19 Exodus 28:4-6 Deuteronomy 10:6-15 Deuteronomy 25:1-3 Deuteronomy 31:28~3o; 32:1-7 Joshua 11 :g-i6 Psalm 27 [a8]:6~7 Psalm 72 [73J:i-ioa Isaiah 13:3-10 Isaiah 61:1-5 Ezekiel 31:8-i5 Matthew 3:10-11 Matthew 8:1-10 Matthew 27:3-5 Matthew 27:16-23 Mark i: 1-6 Mark 9:2-29 Mark 16:2-11 Mark 16:12-17 Luke i: 1-6 Luke 2:33-50 Luke 5:38-6:9 Luke 11 -.2-8 Luke 21 -.37-22:3 Luke 22:38-45 Luke 24:23-53 John i: 19-21 John 4:47-5:6 [John 7:53-8:11] John 11:31-37 John 18:31-34, 37-38 John 19:10-16 Acts 8:36-38 Romans 14:22-23; 15:1-2 Romans 16:23 Romans 16:25-27 1 Corinthians 2:9-3:3 Galatians 2:16-20 Colossians 2:13-14 2 Thessalonians 3:11-18 Philemon 10-25 Hebrews 1:1-7 Hebrews i: 1-2:2 Hebrews 11:33~38 i Peter 5:12-14 Jude 3-25 Revelation 3:19-4:1 Revelation 11:7~g
I. S I G L A A S S I G N E D BY R A H L F S
5 20 11 2 17 i 3 15 30 27 21 34 10 38 31 33 25 26 18 24 16 40 45 19 37 36 29 14 38 23 36 7 4 33 22 43 6 43 28 39 39 13 32 6 13 41 44 35 12 42
Pic
Codex
G
15
L
2(
Q
21
i; i 5 3 i ii ic 30
W 803 814 848 957 962 967 1098
iioi
27 II. SIGLA ASSIGNED BY G R E G O R Y AND/OR A L A N D
Codex 6
p« Ps* P66 P7S N A B D E
6 4 7 9 14 18 13 19 22
G S W 0 V 047
28 31 16 25 24 23
69
45
0169 0212
124
165
223 461 623 700 892 1022
12 8
36
40
43 26 35 37 29 44
1739
32
2060
42
'5 '809
33 39
1922
'303 6a
145
Pla,
41
38
146
III. Index of Manuscripts Arranged According to Their Present Location Plate Ann Arbor: University of Michigan MS. Inv. 6238 6 MS. 35 43 Baltimore: Walters Art Gallery MS. 533 44 Cairo: University Library MS. P. Fouad Inv. 266 3 Cambridge: University Library MS. Nn. 2.41 19 Cologny-Geneva: Bibliotheca Bodmeriana MS. Pap. 2 7 MS. Pap. XIV 9 Dresden: Sachische Landesbibliothek MS. A i45b 28 Dublin: Chester Beatty Library MS. Pap. V ii Florence: Bibliotheca Laurenziana MS. Plut. X. 19 41 Jerusalem: Palestine Archeological Museum MS. 7QiLXXEx 2 Jerusalem: Greek Patriarchal Library MS. Saba 247 34 Leicester: Town Museum, Muniment Room MS. <>PJ£ i Leiden: University Library MS. Voss. Gr. Q8 Leningrad: State Public Library MS. Gr. 219 London: British Library MS. Add. 33277 MS. Add. 43725 MS. Egerton 2610 MS. Royal, I.D.v-viii Manchester: John Rylands Library MS. P. Ryl. 457 MS. P. Ryl. 458
45 15 26
29 14 37 ; . . 18 4 i
Milan: Bibliotheca Ambrosiana MS. O 39 Sup Moscow: Historical Museum MS. cod. 129 Mount Athos: MS. Laura 172 (B' 52) MS. Laura 184 (B' 64) New Haven: Yale University, Beinecke Library MS. P. Yale i MS. Dura Parch. 24 Oxford: Bodleian Library MS. Laud. 35 Princeton: University Library MS. Scheide Pap. i MS. Garrett i Princeton: Theological Seminary Library MS. Pap. 5 MS. 11.21.1900 Rome: Biblioteca Vaticana MS. Gr. 354 MS. Gr. 542 MS. Gr. 1209 MS. Gr. 1650 MS. Gr. 2125 MS. Gr. 2138 MS. Barb. Gr. 541 Sinai: Monastery of St. Catherine MS. Gr. 286 Tiflis: Inst. rukop. MS. Gr. 28 Vienna: Nationalbibliothek MS. Gr. 31 MS. Gr. 188 Washington: Freer Gallery of Art MS. 06.274 MS. Wash. I
Plate 30 27
24 32 5 8 22 10 23 12 38 31 42 13 35 21 33 40 39 25 20 36
*6 17
147
IV. Palaeographic Index abbreviations, 28, 29-31, 52, 106, 124 — chart of, 30 — by combination of letters, 29, 30, 64, 66, 80, 92 — by contraction, 29, 31, 36, 37 — by superposition of letters, 29, 66, 68, 70, 74, 76, 80 — by suspension of letters, 29, 30, 62, 66, 80, 84, 92, 98, no, 112, 114, 120 accents, 12, 25, 28, 32, 74, 98, 102, 108, no, 130, 138 — acute, 28, 70 — circumflex, 94 — double, 12, 114 — lack of, 76, 84, 86, 96, 104 alphabet, Armenian, 10 — Coptic, 10 — Cyrillic, 10 — Glagolitic, 10 — Gothic, 10 — Greek, 6-10, 23 — Semitic, 8, 10 amanuensis, 40 Ammonian sections, 42, 74, 86, 98, 106, 110, 120, 122 amulets, 35 Apostolos, 43, 126 apostrophe, 66, 68, 84 Aramaic, 33, 60 aspirates, see breathings asterisk, 38, 80, 94, 98 'Biblical Uncial,' 24, 74, 76, 84, 86 'bilinearity,' 22 bilingual manuscripts, 55, 56, 88-89, 96, 104, 128 books, 14, 15 — order of in NT, 76, 82, 88 book-hand, 22, 24, 25 brackets, 22, 66, 70 breathings, 12, 25, 28, 32, 49, 74, 102, 108, 110, 138 — as guide to date of manuscript, 49 — forms of, 12 — lack of, 76, 86, 96, 104 — rough, 12, 68, 72, 80 — round, 130 — smooth, similar to mark of word division, 31, 84 — square, 28, 64, 98, 106 bone, as writing material, 3 boustrophedon style of writing, 7 'Cadmean letters,' 6 calligraphy, 22, 31 n. 56 cancel-dot, 22, 66, 122 cancel-stroke, 22, 114 canon tables, Eusebian, 42, 120 capital letters, 22, 23, 66, 104, 122 cartonnage, 60 catena, 48 chanting, 44, 116
chapter divisions, 40-43, 74, 96, 118 chi-rho monogram, 31, 84, 118 Christogram, 31, 84, 118 codex, 16, 17 — pocket-sized, 72 — reasons for adoption by Christians, 17 — single quire, 16 n. 30, 64 codicology, 3, 16 n. 29, 142 coins, 3, 34 cola, 39, 88, 96 collation of manuscripts, 52-53 colometry, 38-40, 88-89, 96 colophons, 20, 49, 102, no, 112, 114, 118, 124, 128, 130, 134 columns, width of, 16 combinations of letters, 26, 27, 30 — as means of abbreviation, 29, 30 — chart of, 27, 30 comma, 32; and see punctuation commentaries, 46, 48 — alternating with text, 132 — marginal, 48, 110, 130 contractions, 29, 31, 36, 37, 84, 102 Coptic uncial, 25, 74, 94 copying of manuscripts, 21-22, 25, 29 coronis, 77 corrections, scribal, 60, 66, 72, 74, 77, 78, 86, 96, 112, 114, 118, 122, 136 — different methods of, 66 — secondary position of, 22; and see cancel-dot, cancel-stroke corrector, 22, 77, 86, 96, 136 critical signs, 78, 132 — asterisk, 38, 80, 94, 98 — brackets, 22, 66, 70 — dots, 38, 80, 102, 110 — expunging dot, 22, 66, 122 — fillers, 66, 70 — hexaplaric, 38, 80, 94, 108 — indicating word-division, 31, 62, 84 — lines in margin marking quotations, 74, 104 — lozenge, 32, 114 — marking spurious passages, 98, 106 — obelus, 38, 80, 98, 112 cruciform text, 98 cursive, 22, 23, 24, 64, 66, 84 — development from uncial, 24 — special form for book production, 24; and see minuscule date of manuscripts, estimating, 49-51, 77-78 dated manuscripts, 110, 118, 126, 130, 132 — earliest minuscule. 102 — uncial, 110 decorated style, 24; and see 'Zierstil' decorations, 74, 104, 114, 116, 122, 126, 128, 134 — zoomorphic, 114; and see illumination, ornamentation
148
INDEX
deletions, 22, 66, 114, 122 deluxe editions, 15, 44-45 diaeresis, 12-13, 60, 64, 68, 72, 80, 82, 92, 96, 102, »34 — as a single dot, 138 Diatessaron, 66 dictation, 21-22 digamma, 7, 9 diorthotes, 22; and see corrector dipli, 32 dividers between words, 31, 62, 84 divisions, chapter, 40-42, 74, 96', 118 — paragraph, 32; and see paragraph division — verse, 41-42 documentary hand, 72 elision, 13, 84 'en as de pique,' 28, 128 end fillers, 66 enlarged letters marking paragraphs, 32, 86; and see initial letters, enlarged epigraphy, 3 erasures, 80, 114 Eusebian canons, 42, 74, 76, 78, 86, 98, 106, no, 120, 122 Euthalian apparatus, 42-43, 118 Evangelarium, 43, 114, 124 expunging dot, 22, 66, 122 'Fettaugenmode,' 28 fillers at end of lines, 66 gematria, 9, 62 glossary, 48 glosses, 46, 47, 48, 88, 112, 130 gold ink, 15, 17, 18, 46, 124, 134 grave accent, 31, 62, 138; and see accents Greek, pronunciation of, 11, 13, 22, 62 guidelines, 15, 66, 102 handwriting, Greek, 22-29 — deliberately archaized, 50 — evolution of as means of dating, 49-50 — non-literary, 72 — styles of, 24-29, 49, 50, 60, 74, 76, 84, 86, 94, 110 headings, chapter, 40-42, 98 — decorative, 15, 126, 128, 134 Hebrew letters, 6, 7, 8, 33, 34, 35, 38, 60, 108 'helps for readers,' 33, 43, 47, 94 hexameter line, as standard of measure, 38-39 Hexapla, 34, 38, 94, 108 — Tetragrammaton in, 35, 94, 108 Hexaplaric signs, 38, 80, 94, 108 hiatus, 13, 70 hypotheses, 43, 136 illuminated manuscripts, 92, 102, 134; and see decorations, miniatures, ornamentation incipits, 44, 106, 114, 124, 126 — collation of, 53 — list of, 53 n. 153
indiction, 49, no, 118 infralinear writing, 49 initial letters, 15, 74, 114, 124 — decorated, 120, 122, 128, 134 — enlarged, 32, 70, 86, 98, 102, 126, 132, 134 — zoomorphic, 114 ink, 17, 18, 44 — colored, 15, 17, 76, 84, 88, 92, 98, 102, 130, 132 — gold, 15, 17, 18, 46, 124, 134 — multiple colors in one manuscript, 18, 46, 74, 104, 114, 120, 122, 124, 134 — silver, 15, 17, 46, 92 inkstand, 18 interlinear manuscript, 104 iota adscript, 24, 28, 60, 62, 108, 122, 124 — subscript, 28 itacism, 13, 62 Arai-compendium, 30, 66, 80, 92, 114, 120 kephalaia, 41, 98, 106, no, 118, 134, 136 lectionaries, 30, 43-44, 53, 98, 114, 122, 124, 126 — beginning and/or end of lections noted, 43, 98, 106, 112, 134 — equipment or aids, 43, 84, 98, 106, 112, 114, 116, 124, 126, 134, 136 lector, 21, 114 lexica, 46, 47, 48 ligatures, 24, 27, 28, 49, 66, 92, 102, 116 n. i, 122 — charts of, 27, 30 lozenge, 32, 114 magical formulae, 35 majuscule, 22 — 'Biblical majuscule,' 24, 74, 76, 86 manuscripts, Biblical, determining date of, 49-51 — earliest dated minuscule, 26, 102 — indexes, catalogs, and check-lists of, 4-5, 50, 54 — multi-lingual, 55-56, 88-89, 9^> IO 4> I2 ^ — minuscule, classification into periods, 26, 28, 29 — order of books in, 55, 82, 88 — statistics relating to, 26, 54-56 — transcription of, 20-22 manuscripts, dated, no, 118, 126, 130, 132 manuscripts, with commentary, 48, no, 130, 132 margin, extension of letters into, to mark paragraph, 68, 70, 76, 80, 84, 86, 98, 102, 120, 132, 134 marginal notes, 43, 46, 47, 48, 74, 78, 88, 94, 104, 106, I I O , 112, 114, I l 8 , I2O, 122, 130, 134, 136, I38
marginal signs, see critical signs marks, indicating word-division, 31, 62, 84 menologion, 44, 106, 124, 126 miniatures, 44-46, 92, 102, 122, 136; and see illuminated manuscripts minium, 45 'minuscule boulet€e,' 28 minuscule handwriting, 25-29 — letters, 22, 23, 24, 50 — manuscripts, classification into periods, 26, 28-29 musical notation, see neumes
INDEX neumes, 44, 98, no, 116, 126 nomina divina, 37 nomina sacra, 36-37, 52, 66, 70, 72, 80, 92, 102 non-literary hands, 22, 72 notation ekphonetique, 44 nu, final, represented by horizontal line, 66, 68, 70, 80 — moveable, 13, 53 numerals, Greek, 7, 9, 53, 62 obelus, 38, 80, 98, 112 Oktoechos, 44, 108 omission signs, see critical signs, deletions onomasticon, 46, 47-48, 94 order of books in NT, 64, 76, 82, 88 ornamentation, 42, 45, 60, 62, 72, 120, 126, 128, 134; and see decorations, illumination, miniatures — lack of, 74, 76 ostraca, 37, 54 n, 154 palaeography, aims and definition of, 3-4 — modern research tools for, 4-5 palimpsest, 18-19, 34, 108 pandect, 54 paper, 315, 106 n. i, 138 papyrus, 3, 14, 22, 60, 62, 66, 68, 70, 72 — manufacture of, 14 paragraph division, 32, 82 — by extension into margin, 68, 70, 76, 80, 84, 86, 98, 102, 120, 132, 134 — critical marks indicating, 32, 70 —spaces indicating, 32, 66, 68 Parakletike, 44 parchment, 3, 14, 15, 17, 18, 22, 25 — purple, 17, 18, 46, 92 pen, 17, 18, 138 — use of brush or reed instead of, 17, 138 penknife, 18 'Perlschrift,' 28 petuhot, 70
Thoencian letters,' 6 'Pipi,' 35, 94, 108 potsherds, 3 Praxapostolos, 134 prickings, 15, 66 printing, 20, 26, 28, 29 prologues, see hypotheses, superscriptions, titles — Euthalian, 43 pronunciation of Greek, see Greek, pronunciation of prophetologion, 43, 116 pumice, 14, 18 punctuation, 31-32, 70, 74, 82, 84, 86, 98, 114 —-lack of, 31, 74, 96 — marks, value of, 32 purple manuscripts, 17-18, 46, 92 question mark, 32, 114; and see punctuation Quinta, 38 n. 87, 108 quire, 16 Qumran, 60 — date of papyrus fragments found at, 24 n. 41
149
— treatment of Tetragrammaton at, 33, 35 quotations, identified in margin, 118 — lines in margin indicating, 74, 104 reading, oral, 31, 31 n. 57; and see lector recto, 15, 16 n. 31, 62, 70 red ink, 15, 17, 76, 84, 88, 98, 102, 124, 130, 132 reed, 17, 138 reference marks, see critical signs roll, 15-16, 34, 60, 66, 136 roundels, 24 rubrics, 15, 98, 102, 106, 108, 124 ruler, 18 ruling, 14-15, 102 — patterns of as guide to identification, 15 scholia, 48, no, 112 scribes, 18, 20, 21, 31, 32, 36 — more than one in same manuscript, 74, 76-77, 82,86 — payment of, 39 — posture of, 21 n. 37 — tools of, 18 scriptio continua, 31 scriptorium, 21, 22 'sense-lines,' 39, 40, 88 separation, between words or sentences, 26, 31, 62, 84 Septima, 38 n. 87 Septuagint, 33, 35, 38, 60, 62, 70, 72, 80, 84, 92, 94, 102, 108, 116 serifs, 24, 24 n. 40, 60, 66, 76, 94 setumot, 70 Sexta, 38 n. 87 shorthand, Greek, 31 signs, critical, see critical signs silver ink, 15, 17, 46, 92 Slavonic uncial, 25, no sortes sanctorum, 88 spaces, 26 — at end of line, 60, 84 — between words, 64, 66 — indicating paragraph divisions, 32, 66, 68 sponge, 18, 66 spurious passages, marks indicating, 98, 106 staurogram, 31, 84, 118 stichoi, 38-39, 64, 104, 120, 136 stichometry, 38-40 — Syriac, 39 stops, see punctuation styles of handwriting, see handwriting, styles of stylus, 18 subscriptions, 40, 74, 77, 98, 118, 120, 136 superposition of letters, 28, 29, 30, 66, 68, 70, 74, 76, 80 superscriptions, 40, 112, 136 suspension of letters, 29, 30, 62, 66, 80, 84, 92, 98, 110, 112, 114, 120 symbols, 29-31, 52; and see critical signs synaxarion, 44, 106, 124, 126
INDEX
150
talismans, 54 Tetragrammaton, 33-35, 60, 108 — in Greek letters, 35, 94, 108 Tetrapla, 38 titles, 40, 41, 74, 98, 114, 118, 120, 122, 134, 138; and see colophons, hypotheses, superscriptions, titloi titloi, 41, 98, 106, no, 118 trilingual manuscripts, 56 ultra-violet lamp, 18, 77 uncial, 10, 25, 29, 60, 66, 68, 72, 82, 84, 86, 88, 92, 96, 102, 104, no — 'Biblical,' 24, 74, 84, 86 — Coptic, 25, 74, 94 — handwriting, 24, 25 — letters, 22, 23, 28, 50, 114 — Slavonic, 25, 110
.21, 44 30, 43, 84, 98, 106, 122, 134
vellum, 14, 15, 74, 76, 86 — purple. 15, 17, 92 verse-division. 41-42 verso, 15, 16 n. 31. 60, 62, 70 wax tablets, 3 'Western' order of Gospels, 82, 88 word-division, ambiguity of in scriptio continua, 31 — marks indicating, 31, 62, 84 — rules for, 31 — spaces indicating, 64, 66 writing, direction of, 7 — implements, 18 — materials, types of, 3, 17 'Zierstil,' 24, 60
54 35, 94, 108 12
12
39, 120
7
12
, 22
II
32
35 6 n
42 41, 98, 106, no, 118, 134, 136 39 39, 88, 96 13 44, 108 12
38> 39> 64» I04> 120, 136 48 30, 43, 98, 106, no, 112, 122 , 41, 88, 98, 106, no, 118, 134, 136 40
43> J36 32 118
6